IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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PhotDgraphic 

Sciences 

CorpQration 


S3  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MS80 

(716)872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


*  I ' 
/ '  # 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notas/Notes  tachniquas  at  bibliographiquas 


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to 


Tha  Institute  has  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  available  for  filriiing.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
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□    Coloured  covers/ 
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I      I   Covers  damaged/ 


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I      I   Cover  title  missing/ 


Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


I      I    Coloured  maps/ 


Cartas  g^ographiquas  en  couleur 


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Encra  da  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


I      I   Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


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Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
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mais.  torsque  cela  6tait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
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ryi  Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 

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obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


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Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppiimentaires; 


Various  pagings. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmi  au  taux  de  reduction  indiquA  ci-dessous. 

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The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanke 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Dana  Porter  Arts  Library 
Univartity  of  Waterloo 


L'exemplaire  film*  f ut  reproduit  grAce  li  la 
ginArotit*  de: 

Dana  Porter  Arts  Library 
Univanity  of  Waterloo 


The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
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plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  at 
de  la  nettet*  de  rexemplaire  film*,  et  en 
conformit*  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imprim*e  sont  film*s  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  terminant  soit  par  la 
derni*re  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  ex«mplaires 
originaux  sont  film*s  en  commenpant  par  la 
premi*re  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  terminant  par 
la  derni*re  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  —»>(  meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 


Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparattra  sur  la 
derni*re  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  —^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  ▼  signifie  "FIN". 


Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  *tre 
film*s  *  des  taux  de  r*duction  diff*rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  *tre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clich*.  ii  est  film*  *  partir 
de  I'angle  sup*rieur  gauche,  de  gauche  *  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'images  n*cessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrant  la  m*thode. 


1 

2 

3 

1 

2 

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5 

6 

H 


ON    THE 


\ 


USE   AND  ABUSE 


07 


ALCOHOLIC    LIQUORS, 


IN  HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 


^5rijj  feaii. 


BY    WILLIAM    B.    CARPENTER, 

H.D.  F.B.8.  F.O.B. 

EXAMINER  IN  PHYSIOLOGY  IN  THE   UNIVERSITY  OP  LONDON,   AND 

FROPESSOR  OP   MEDICAL   JURISPRUDENCE   IN 

UXn'ERSlTY   COLLEGE. 


BOSTON : 

P  U  D  L  I  8  II  E  D     FOR     THE 

MASSACHUSETTS    TEMPERANCE    SOCIETY 

BY   WM.    CROSBY   &    II.    P.    NICHOLS, 
111,  Washington  Street. 

1851. 


l-:^.^xj^^,,^^. 


:  BOSTON: 

PRINTED     BY    JOHN     WILSON, 
No.  21,  School-itreet 


W 


OFFICERS 


OiTTHB 


MASSACHUSETTS  TEMPERANCE   SOCIETY, 


1860-61. 


w 


JOHN  C.  WARREN,  M.D.  .  . 
HON.  STEPHEN  FAIRBANKS 

MOSES  GRANT,  Etq 

REV.  ANDREW  L.  STONE  . 
REV.  JOSEPH  BANVARD  . 
RICHARD  OIRDLER,  E»q.  . 
BENJAMIN  P.  RICHARDSON, 


.    President. 

.     Vice-President. 

,    Secretary  and  Treasurer. 


Esq.. 


'  Councillors. 


u 


PREFACE  TO  THE  BOSTON  EDITION. 


Thb  name  of  Dr.  Carpenter  has  become  well  known 
in  the  United  States  by  his  valuable  and  beautiful  work 
on  the  Principles  of  General  and  Comparative  Physiology, 
by  his  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  and  by  various 
other  writings.  The  studies  to  wliich  the  production  of 
tliese  works  led,  qualified  him  to  undertake  an  inves- 
tigation of  the  ejects  of  alcohol  on  the  human  body. 
When,  therefore,  it  was  announced  that  the  prize  of  one 
hundred  guineas,  which  the  liberality  of  a  gentleman  in 
England  had  oflfered  for  the  best  Essay  on  the  Use  of 
Alcoholic  Liquors  in  Health  and  Disease,  had  been  ga'n  vi 
by  him,  those  who  felt  an  interest  in  the  subject  lookc  ! 
with  eagerness  for  the  results  of  his  labors ;  and,  when 
they  appeared,  the  highly  wrought  expectation  was  not 
disappointed.  Accordingly,  we  were  pleased  to  find  that 
an  edition  was  soon  issued  in  this  country  by  Messrs. 
Lea  and  Blanchard,  of  Philadelphia,  and  that  physicians 
and  others  would  be  able  to  avail  thousolves  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  Dr.  Carpenter's  talent  and  researches. 


n  PREFACE  TO  TUB  BOSTON  EDITION. 

Many  persons  have  thought  that  the  work  could  bo 
rendered  more  generally  UHoful  by  the  insertion  of  expla- 
natory notes,  which  should  make  it  intelligible  to  the  mass 
of  readers.  This  has  been  hero  accomplished  under  the 
direction  of  the  Massachusetts  Temperance  Society,  — 
the  word  "Author"  having  been  usually  affixed  to  the 
notes  of  Dr.  Carpenter,  to  distinguish  them  from  those 
in  the  present  edition. 

It  has  been  intimated,  that  some  medical  men  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  highly  distinguished  for  learning 
and  benevolence,  have  not  gone  as  far  in  the  absolute  and 
unexceptionable  exclusion  of  alcoholic  liquids  as  many 
temperance  physicians  and  others  in  this  country  con- 
sider themselves  justified  in  doing.  We  must  admit 
that  our  experience  is  in  favor  of  the  expediency  and 
safety  of  their  unqualified  prohibition  at  every  period  of 
life,  excepting  always  their  medicinal  use  under  medical 
prescription.  This  exporiouco,  somewhat  extensive  and 
protracted,  among  the  young  and  the  old,  among  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  including  a  krgo  hospital  observation, 
has  not  made  known  to  us  permanently  unfavorable  con- 
sequences from  the  sudden  relinquishment  of  the  use  of 
spirituous  and  fermented  liciuors ;  provided,  however,  that 
the  change  lias  boon  accompanied  by  a  judicious  manage- 
ment of  food,  of  medicinal  tonics,  and  of  the  moral  con- 
dition of  the  subject.  In  this  remark  wo  do  not  mean 
to  include  intemperate  persons  who  meet  with  great 


PREFACE  TO  THE   BOSTON  EDITION. 


YU 


accidents;  for  we  know  that,  when  compelled  by  a 
severe  injury  to  intermit  their  bad  habit,  they  often  suf- 
fer greatly  and  fatally.  DeUrium  tremens,  mortification, 
and  the  worst  forms  of  inflammation,  occurring  under 
these  circumstances,  render  abortive  all  the  skill  or  inge- 
nuity of  the  surgeon  and  physician.  Such  conditions  in 
an  alcoholic  patient  often  demand,  as  the  indispensable 
remedy,  a  recurrence  to  the  poison  which  has  been  the 
source  of  his  suffering  and  danger.  When  it  is  thus 
used,  we  would  recommend  that  the  earliest  opportunity 
should  be  employed  for  discontinuing  the  practice,  and 
warning  the  patient  against  a  return  to  it. 

We  have  adverted  to  the  use  of  stimulant  drinks  in 
the  latter  part  of  life,  and  expressed  an  unfavorable 
opinion.  This  is  quite  contrary  to  the  common  belief, 
and  will  be  thought  injudicious  and  the  result  of  over- 
heated zeal.  "  Vinum  lac  senum"  is  a  favorite  adage, 
and  is  too  congenial  to  the  tastes  and  wishes  of  most 
men  to  become  unpopular.  Instances,  however,  have 
constantly  presented  themselves  to  our  notice  of  old  men 
who  complained  that  wine,  which  they  had  formerly 
taken  as  they  thought  with  advantage,  though  still  agree- 
able, had  ceased  to  be  salutary.  Formerly,  they  ex- 
perienced from  it  no  particular  inconvenience ;  but,  at  a 
later  period  of  life,  it  caused  acidity  of  stomach,  heat 
about  the  head  and  hands,  pain  in  the  head,  and  other 
inconveniences.     When  the  wine  was  abandoned,  the 


till 


PRBPACB  TO  THB   BOSTON  BDITION. 


•ymptoms  disappeared,  and  they  were  reluctantly  brought 
to  the  oonolusion  that  they  were  better  without  it.  Theae 
well-established  facts  are  supported  by  an  investigation 
into  the  physical  changes  of  advanced  life.  Observation 
has  shown,  that  the  pulse,  instead  of  becoming  slower  in 
proportion  to  age,  as  generally  believed,  does,  ailer  a 
certain  period,  begin  to  quicken,  and  continues  to  do  so 
to  the  end  of  life.  This  disposition  in  the  system  to  an 
increase  of  the  heart's  action  is  still  farther  excited  by 
the  use  of  stimulants ;  and  the  condition  which  was  favor- 
able to  health,  under  the  influence  of  natural  powers, 
becomes  morbid  from  the  over-excitement  of  artificial 
stimulants. 

On  the  whole,  we  should  recommend,  aa  a  general 
rule,  the  sudden  and  total  abandonment  of  the  habit  oi 
employing  spirituous  and  fermented  liquors,  both  by  the 
young  and  the  aged,  the  weak  and  the  strong. 

The  work  of  Dr.  Carpenter  we  consider  to  be  the 
most  valuable  contribution  to  the  aid  of  temperance 
which  it  has  received  since  the  productions  of  L.  M. 
Sargknt,  Esq. ;  and  we  heartily  recommend  its  perusal 
to  all  classes  of  people,  particularly  to  gentlemen  of  the 
medical  profession. 

J.  C.  W. 

BosTOR,  D«eeinber,  1840. 


TO 


HIS    ROYAL    HIGHNESS 


PRINCE   ALBERT, 


€{)i0  €bu^ 


(by    febmission) 
MOST  RESPECTFULLY  DEDICATED, 

At  AW 

EXPRE8BI0N      OP     THE     AUTHOR'S      ADMIRATION 

OF  HIS  ROYAI.  HIOHNESS'S  ENDEAVORS 

TO  ELEVATE 

THE  SOCIAL  CONDITION  OP  HIS  ADOPTED  COUNTRY, 

AND  WITH  THE  FIRM  BELIEF 

THAT  THE  PATRONAGE  NOW  SO  ORACIOUSLT  CONCEDED 

WILL    AID     IN     CALLING     THE    ATTENTION     OP    THE    PUBLIC 

TO  THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE   PRESENT  INQUIRY 

IN    A    DEGREE    COMMENSURATE 

WITH  ITS  IMPORTANCE. 


6« 


dr 


>I>VERTISEMENT 


ISSUED   BT   DIBBCTIOM    OF   THE   DOKOB   OP   THB   FBIZE. 


A  PRIZE  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  GUINEAS 

WILL  BE    GIVEN   rOR   THB   BEST   ESSAY   ON   THB   USB    OF   ALCOHOLIC 
LiaCOBS  IN   HEALTH  AND  DIBBA8B. 


The   Essay  must  contain   answers   to   the   following 
questions :  — 

1.  What  are  the  effects,  corporeal  and  mental,  of  alcoholic 

liquors  on  the  healthy  human  system  ? 

2.  Does  physiology  or  experience  teach  us  that  alcoholic  liquors 

should  form  part  of  the  ordinary  sustenance  of  man,  par- 
ticularly under  circumstances  of  exposure  to  severe  labor, 
or  to  extremes  of  temperature  ?  Or,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  there  reason  for  believing  that  such  use  of  them  is  not 
sanctioned  by  the  principles  of  science,  or  the  results  of 
practical  observation  ? 

3.  Are  there  any  special  modifications  of  the  bodily  or  mental 

condition  of  man,  short  of  actual  disease,  in  which  the 
occasional  or  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  may  be 
necessary  or  beneficial  ? 

4.  Is  the  employment  of  alcoholic  liquors  necessary  in  the 

practice  of  medicine  ?  If  so,  in  what  diseases,  or  in  what 
forms  and  stages  of  disease,  is  the  use  of  them  necessary 
or  beneficial  i 

The  Essay  must  be  delivered  to  the  undersigned  ad- 
dress, on  or  before  the  30th  day  of  September,  1 849. 


xu 


ADVERTISEMENT  AND  ADJUDICATION. 


1 


Dr.  John  Forbes,  F.R.S.,  Physician  to  the  Queen's 
Household,  Prince  Albert,  and  the  Duke  of  Cambridge ; 
Dr.  G.  L.  RouPELL,  F.R.S.,  Physician  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Hospital  ;  and  Dr.  W.  A.  Gut,  M.B.,  Cantab., 
Professor  of  Forensic  Medicine,  King's  College,  London, 
have  kindly  consented  to  act  as  adjudicators,    a.. 

Signed  on  behalf  of  the  Donor, 

Chaeles  Gilpin. 
Thomas  Beogs. 
6,  Bishopsgate  Street  Without, 
London,  April,  1848. 


ADJUDICATION. 


From  the  fifteen  manuscript  Essays  on  the  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  transmitted  to  us  by  Messrs. 
Beggs  and  Gilpin  for  adjudication,  we  have  unanimously 
selected  as  the  best  the  one  bearing  the  motto,  Mens  sana 
in  corpore  sano.  We  accordingly  adjudicate  to  its  author 
the  prize  of  one  hundred  guineas. 

We  also  think  it  due  to  the  author  of  the  Essay  bear- 
ing the  motto,  Quot  homines  tot  sententioe,  to  record  our 
opinion  of  its  great  merits. 

We  further  deem  it  right  to  speak  in  terms  of  coiAmen- 
dation  of  the  Essay  having  five  mottoes,  the  first  of  which 
is,  HotD  use  doth  breed  a  habit  in  a  man.      •  » 


(Signed) 

' .  ■      i  ) 

London,  December  6th,  1849. 


John  Forbes,  M.D. 
G.  L.  RoupELL,  M.D. 
William  A.  Guy,  M.B. 


PREFACE. 


The  circumstances  under  which  the  following  Essay  is 
given  to  the  public  are  suflSciently  explained  bj  the  pre- 
cedii^  Advertisem^it  and  Adjudication ;  but  the  author 
takes  this  opportunity  of  offering  a  short  statement  of 
the  objects  whicK  he  had  specially  in  view  in  its  com- 
position. 

The  questi(His  set  forth  in  the  Advertisement  having 
been  evid^itly  drawn  up  with  great  care,  and  having 
been  obviously  intended  to  bring  the  whole  subject  of  the 
ordinary  as  well  as  the  medical  employment  of  alcoholic 
liquors  under  discussion,  the  author  judged  it  advisable 
to  follow  the  plan  which  they  had  marked  out,  by 
answerii^  each  of  them  seriatim  ;  *  although  he  was 
aware,  that,  by  so  doing,  a  certain  amount  of  repetition 
would  be  almost  necessarily  involved.  He  found,  as  he 
proceeded,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  such 
a  continuity  in  his  argument  as  would  be  desirable  for 
its  effectiveness;   and  he  would  therefore  request  his 

*  Seriatim^  in  order. 


XIV 


PREFACE. 


readers,  in  limine,*  to  keep  the  following  issues  in  view, 
as  those  to  which  ho  is  desirous  of  leading  them. 


In  the  first  place,  That,  from  a  scientific  examination 
of  the  modus  operandi -f  of  alcohol  upon  the  human 
hody,  when  taken  in  a  poisonous  dose,  or  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  produce  intoxication,  wo  may  fairly  draw 
inferences  with  regard  to  the  specific  effects  which  it  is 
likely  to  produce,  when  repeatedly  taken  in  excess,  but 
not  to  an  immediately  fatal  amount. 

Secondly,  That  the  consequences  of  the  excessive  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors,  as  proved  by  the  experience  of  the 
medical  profession,  and  universally  admitted  by  medical 
writers,  being  precisely  such  as  the  study  yof  its  effects 
in  poisonous  and  immediately  &tal  doses  would  lead  us 
to  anticipate,  we  are  further  justified  in  expecting  that 
the  habitual  use  of  smaller  quantities  of  these  liquors,  if 
sufficiently  prolonged,  will  ultimately  bo  attended,  in  a 
large  proportion  of  cases,  with  consequences  prejudicial 
to  the  human  system ;  the  morbid  actions  thus  engen- 
dered being  likely  rather  to  be  chronic  X  tlian  acute  || 
in  their  character. 

Thirdly,  That,  as  such  morbid  actions  are  actually 
found  to  be  among  the  most  common  disorders  of  persons 

*  In  limine,  at  the  beginning. 

t  Modus  operandi,  action. 

X  Chronic,  fixed,  of  long  continuance. 

II  Acute,  transient. 


'  !T  .  » 


PREFACE. 


XV 


advanced  in  life,  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  a 
"  moderate"  allowance  of  alcohohc  liquors,  there  is  very 
strong  ground  for  regarding  them  as  in  great  degree 
dependent  upon  the  asserted  cause,  although  the  long 
postponement  of  their  effects  may  render  it  impossible  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  such  a  connection. 

Fourthly,  That  the  preceding  conclusion  is  fully  ]  orne 
out  by  the  proved  results  of  the  "  moderate  "  use  of  alco- 
hohc liquors,  in  producing  a  marked  liability  to  the  acute 
forms  of  similar  diseases  in  hot  climates,  where  their 
action  is  accelerated  by  other  conditions ;  and  also  by  the 
analogous  facts  now  universally  admitted,  in  regard  to 
the  remotely  injurious  effects  of  slight  excess  in  diet, 
imperfect  aeration  *  of  the  blood,  insuflScient  repose,  and 
other  like  violations  of  the  laws  of  he;ilth,  when  habitu- 
ally practised  through  a  long  period  of  time. 

Fifthly,  That  the  capacity  of  the  healthy  human  sys- 
tem to  sustain  as  much  bodily  or  mental  labor  as  it  can 
be  legitimately  called  upon  to  perform,  and  its  power  of 
resisting  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  as  well  as  other 
depressing  agencies,  are  not  augmented  by  the  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors ;  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  their  use, 
under  such  circumstances,  tends  positively  to  the  impair- 
ment of  that  capacity. 

Sixthly,  That,  where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  power, 
on  the  part  of  the  system,  to  carry  on  its  normal  actions 
*  Aeration,  vitalizing  by  the  action  of  air. 


m 


PRSFA<3a. 


i 


*.  . 


with  the  energy  and  regularity  which  ooDstitute  health, 
Buch  power  can  rarely  be  imparted  foy  <^  habitual  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors ;  its  deficiency  being  generally  con- 
Bequeht  upon  some  habitual  departure  firom  tlie  laws  of 
health,  for  which  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  cannot 
compensate;  and  the  employment  of  sudi  liquors, 
although  with  the  temporary  effect  of  palliating  the  dis- 
order, having  not  merely  a  remotely  injurious  effect  per 
sCf*  but  also  tending  to  mask  the  action  of  other  morbific 
cuuses,  hy  rendering  the  system  more  tolerant  of  them. 

Seventhly f  That,  consequently,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
medical  practitioner  to  discourage  as  much  as  possible 
the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  in  however  "  mode- 
rate "  a  quantity,  by  all  persons  in  ordinary  healtii ;  and  to 
seek  to  remedy  those  slight  departures  from  health  which 
result  from  the  "wear  and  tear"  of  active  life,  by  the 
means  which  shall  most  directly  remove  or  antagonize  their 
causes,  instead  of  by  such  as  simply  palliate  their  effects. 

Eighthly,  That,  whilst  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  even  in  the  most  "moderate"  amount,  is  likely 
(except  in  a  few  rare  instances)  to  be  rather  injurious 
than  beneficial,  great  benefit  may  be  derived,  in  the 
treatment  of  disease,  from  the  medicinal  use  of  alcohol 
in  appropriate  cases ;  but  that  the  same  care  should  be 
employed  in  the  discriminating  selection  of  those  cases, 
as  would  be  taken  by  the  conscientious  practitioner  in 

*  Per  ae,  in  itself. 


'■- 1 


PHIFAOI. 


zm 


regard  to  tbe  administrfttioii  of  any  other  powerful 
remedy  which  if  poitonous  in  Urge  doees.  ^  ' 


■5  ''-^ 


The  foregoing  appear  to  the  author  to  be  the  conclu- 
sions legitimately  deducible  from  the  facts  and  arguments 
which  he  has  brought  forwards :  it  will  be  for  his  profes- 
sional readers  to  decide  how  &r  the  case  which  he  has 
made  out  is  sufficiently  strong  to  lead  them  to  the  same 
results.    This  much,  however,  he  would  add ;  that,  when 
he  first  entered  upon  the  investigation,  some  years  ago, 
he  had  adopted  no  fbregone  conclusion,  and  had,  conse- 
quently, no  temptation  to  make  the  facts  square  with 
preconceived  views ;  that  he  has  constantly  endeavored 
to  treat  the  subject  as  one  of  purely  scientific  inquiry, 
and  has  avoided  mixing  up  any  other  considerations  with 
those  which  presented  themselves  to  him  as  a  physiolo- 
gist and  a  physician ;  and  that,  for  the  sake  of  keeping 
himself  free  from  even  the  appearance  of  partisanship, 
he  has  never  allied  himself  with  any  one  of  the  societies 
which  have  been  tovmed  to  carry  into  practical  e£fect  the 
total-abstinence  principle,  but  has  preferred  to  follow 
a  perfectly  independent  course.    He  ventures  to  hope, 
that  on  these  grounds  he  may  claim  some  right  to  being 
candidly  heard  by  those  to  whom  this  Essay  is  more 
especially  addressed. 

He  cannot  albw  it  to  go  forth,  however,  Vithout  ex- 
pressing his  conviction,  that,  wliilst  there  are  adequate 


zvu 


PREFACE. 


medical  reasons  for  abstinence  from  the  habitual  use  of 
even  a  "  moderate  "  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquors,  there 
are  also  strong  moral  grounds  for  abstinence  from  that 
occasional  use  of  them  which  is  too  frequently  thought 
to  be  requisite  for  social  enjoyment,  and  to  form  an 
essential  part  of  the  rites  of  hospitality.  The  experience 
of  every  practitioner  must  bring  the  t^  ible  results  of 
intemperance  frequently  before  his  eyes ;  but,  "whilst  he 
is  thus  rendered  familiar  with  its  consequences  as  regards 
individuals^  few,  save  those  who  have  expressly  inquired 
into  the  subject,  have  any  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  social 
evils  resulting  from  it,  or  of  the  degree  in  which  they 
pYess  upon  every  member  of  the  community.  The  author 
believes  that  he  is  fully  justified  in  the  assertion,  that, 
among  those  who  have  thus  inquired,  there  is  but  one 
opinion  as  to  the  fact,  that,  of  all  the  causes  which  are  at 
present  conspiring  to  degrade  the  physical,  moral,  and 
intellectual  condition  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  there  is 
not  one  to  be  compared  in  potency  with  the  (dfuse  of 
alcoholic  liquors ;  and  that,  if  this  could  be  done  away 
with,  the  removal  of  all  the  other  causes  would  be  im- 
measurably promoted.  Every  one  who  wishes  well  to 
his  kind,  therefore,  must  be  interested  in  the  inquiry 
how  this  monster-evil  can  be  best  eradicated.  ^. 

Now,  the  author  considers  that  the  best  answer  to  this 
inquiry  has  been  found  in  the  results  of  experience.  A 
fair  trial  has  been  given,  both  in  this  country  and  in  the 


PRBFACB. 


XIX 


United  States,  to  societies  which  advocated  the  principle 
of  temperance^  and  which  enlisted  in  their  support  a 
large  numher  of  intelligent  and  influential  men ;  but  it 
has  been  found  that  little  or  no  good  has  been  effected  bj 
them,  among  the  classes  on  whom  it  was  most  desirable 
that  their  influence  should  be  exerted,  except  where 
those  who  were  induced  to  join  them  really  adopted  the 
total-abstinence  principle.  Though  he  agrees  fully  with 
those  who  maintain,  that,  t/all  the  world  would  be  really 
temperate^  there  would  be  no  need  of  total-abstinence 
societies,  the  author  cannot  adopt  the  inference,  that 
those  who  desire  to  promote  the  temperance  cause  may 
legitimately  rest  satisfied  with  this  measure  of  advocacy. 
For  sad  experience  has  shown,  that  a  large  proportion  of 
mankind  cannot^  partly  for  want  of  the  self-restraint 
which  proceeds  from  moral  and  religious  culture,  be 
temperate  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  and  that  the 
reformation  of  those  who  have  acquired  habits  of  intem- 
perance cannot  be  accomplished  by  any  means  short  of 
entire  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors.  Further, 
experience  has  shovm,  that,  in  the  present  dearth  of 
effectual  education  among  the  masses,  and  with  the  ex- 
isting temptations  to  intemperance  arising  out  of  the 
force  of  example,  the  almost  compulsory  drinking-usages 
of  numerous  trades,  and  the  encouragement  which  in 
various  ways  is  given  to  the  abuse  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
nothing  short  of  total  abstinence  can  prevent  the  con- 


PMFAOli 


tintuuioe;  in  the  riling  generation,  of  the  terrible  evils 
which  we  have  at  present  to  deplore.  And,  lastly,  ex- 
perience has  also  proved,  that  this  reformation  cannot  be 
carried  to  its  required  extent,  without  the  co>operation 
of  the  educated  classes;  and  that  their  influence  can 
only  be  effectually  exerted  by  example.  There  is  no  case 
in  which  the  superiority  of  example  over  mere  precept  is 
more  decided  and  obvious  than  it  is  in  this.  "  I  practise 
total  abstinence  myself,"  is  found  to  be  worth  a  thousand 
exhortations ;  and  the  lamentable  failure  of  the  advocates 
who  cannot  employ  this  argument  should  lead  all  those 
whose  position  calls  upon  them  to  exert  their  influence, 
to  a  serious  consideration  of  the  claims  which  their  duty 
to  society  should  set  up,  in  opposition  to  their  individual 
feelings  of  taste  or  comfort. 

Among  the  most  common  objections  brought  against 
the  advocates  of  the  total-abstinence  principle,  is  the 
following:  "That  the  abuse  of  a  thing  good  in  itself 
does  not  afford  a  valid  argument  against  the  right  use  of 
it"  This  objection  has  been  so  well  met  by  the  late 
Archdeacon  Jeffreys  of  Bombay  (in  a  letter  to  the  Boni- 
bay  Courier),  that,  as  it  is  one  peculiarly  likely  to  occur 
to  the  mind  of  his  medical  readers,  the  author  thinks  it 
desirable  to  quote  a  part  of  his  reply.  '^  The  truth  is," 
he  says,  "that  the  adage  is  only  true  under  certain 
general  limitations ;  and  that  out  of  these,  so  far  from 
being  true,  it  is  utterly  fiilso,  and  a  mischievous  fitllacy. 


^-rrvaSPiavL^je!^^^ 


PBBFACB. 


ZXl 


And  the  limitations  are  these :  If  it  be  found  by  experi- 
ence, that,  in  the  general  practice  of  the  times  in  which 
we  live,  the  abuse  is  only  the  solitary  exception,  whereas 
the  right  use  is  the  general  rule,  so  that  the  whole 
amount  of  good  resulting  from  its  right  use  exceeds  the 
whole  amount  of  evil  resulting  from  its  partial  abuse, 
then  the  article  in  question,  whatever  it  be,  is  fully 
entitled  to  the  benefit  of  the  adage ;  and  it  would  not  be 
the  absolute  and  imperative  duty  of  the  Christian  to  give 
it  up  on  account  of  its  partial  abuse.  This  is  precisely 
the  position  in  which  stand  all  the  gifts  of  Providence, 
and  all  the  enjoyments  of  life ;  for  there  is  not  one  of 
them  which  the  wickedness  of  man  does  not  more  or  less 
abuse.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  found  by  expe- 
rience that  there  is  something  so  deceitful  and  ensnaring 
in  the  article  itself,  or  something  so  peculiarly  untoward 
connected  with  the  use  of  it  in  the  present  age,  that  the 
whole  amount  of  crime  and  misery  and  wretchedness 
connected  with  the  abuse  of  it  greatly  exceeds  the  whole 
amount  of  benefit  ai'ising  from  the  right  use  of  it,  then 
the  argument  becomes  a  mischievous  fallacy,  the  article 
in  question  is  not  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  it,  and  it 
becomes  the  duty  of  every  good  man  to  get  rid  of  it." 
After  alluding  to  the  evidence  that  this  is  pre-eminently 
the  case  with  regard  to  alcoholic  liquors,  the  archdeacon 
continues:  ''We  have,  then,  established  our  principle, 
in  opposition  to  the  philosophic  adage ;  taking  the  duty 


IZU 


PBBPAOB. 


ill 


of  the  citizen  and  the  patriot,  even  on  the  lowest 
ground.  But  Christian  self-denial  and  Christian  love 
and  charity  go  far  beyond  this.  St.  Paul  accounted  one 
single  soul  so  precious,  that  he  would  on  no  account 
allow  himself  in  any  indulgence  that  tended  to  endanger 
a  brother's  soul :  '  If  meat  make  my  brother  to  offend,  I 
will  eat  no  meat  while  the  world  standeth,  lest  I  make 
my  brother  to  offend.'  '  It  is  good  neither  to  eat  flesh 
nor  to  drink  wine,  nor  any  thing  whereby  thy  brother 
stumbleth,  or  is  offended,  or  is  made  weak.'  And  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  flesh  and  wine  are  here  men- 
tioned by  Paul  as  '  good  creatures  of  God ; '  they  are 
not  intended  to  designate  things  evil  in  themselves. 
This  saying  of  St.  Paul  is  the  charter  of  teetotalism ; 
and  will  remain  the  charter  of  our  noble  cause,  so  long 
as  the  world  endures,  so  long  as  there  remains  a  single 
heart  to  love  and  revere  this  declaration  of  the  holy, 
self-denying  Paul." 

If,  then,  the  author  should  succeed  in  convincing  his 
readers  that  the  ''moderate"  habitual  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  is  not  beneficial  to  the  healthy  human  system, 
—  still  more,  if  they  should  be  led  to  agree  with  him 
that  it  is  likely  to  be  injurious,  he  trusts  that  they  will 
feel  called  upon,  by  the  foregoing  considerations,  to 
advocate  the  principle  of  total  abstinence,  in  whatever 
manner  they  may  individually  deem  most  likely  to  be 
effectual.    He  believes  it  to  be  in  the  power  of  the 


PRBFAOB. 


XXlll 


elerioal  and  medical  professions  combined  so  to  influence 
the  opinion  and  practice  of  the  educated  classes  as  to 
promote  the  spread  of  this  principle  among  the  "masses" 
to  a  degree  which  no  other  agency  can  effect.     And  he 
ventures  to  hope,  that,  whether  or  not  he  carries  his 
readers  with  him  to  the  full  extent  of  his  own  conclu- 
sions, he  will  at  any  rate  have  succeeded  in  convincing 
them  that  so  much  is  to  be  said  on  his  side  of  the 
question,  that  it  can  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  indifference 
what  view  is  to  be  taken  of  it ;  and  that,  as  "  universal 
experience  "  has  been  put  decidedly  in  the  wrong  with 
regard  to  many  of  the  supposed  virtues  of  alcohol,  it  is 
at  any  rate  possible  that  its  other  attributes  rest  on  no 
better  foundation.     In  his  general  view  of  the  case,  he 
has  the  satisfaction  of  finding  himself  supported  by  the 
recorded  opinion  of  a  large  body  of  his  professional 
brethren;    upwards  of  two  thousand  of  whom,  in  all 
grades  and  degrees,  —  from  the  court-physicians  and 
leading  metropolitan  surgeons,  who  are  conversant  with 
the  wants  of  the  upper  ranks  of  society,  to  the  humble 
country  practitioner,  who  is  familiar  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  artisan  in  his  workshop,  and  the  laborer  in 
the  field,  —  have  signed  the  following  certificate :  — 


•*  We,  the  undersigned,  are  of  opinion,  — 

"1.  That  a  very  large  proportion  of  human  misery, 
including  poverty,  disease,  and  crime,  is  induced  by  the 
use  of  alcoholic  or  fermented  liquors  as  beverages. 


■'■■■' ^■\'i]\-trv:^rc^r' 


xay 


PRBFACB. 


**  2.  That  the  most  perfect  health  is  compatible  with 
total  abstinence  from  all  such  intoxicating  beverages, 
whether  in  the  form  of  ardent  spirits,  or  as  wine,  beer, 
ale,  porter,  cider,  &c.  &c. 

"3.  That  persons  accustomed  to  such  drinks  may, 
with  perfect  safety,  discontinue  them  entirely,  either  at 
once,  or  gradually  after  a  short  time.  \        *■    , 

"  4.  That  total  and  universal  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
beverages  of  all  sorts  would  greatly  contribute  to  the 
health,  the  prosperity,  the  morality,  and  the  happiness 
of  the  human  race." 

Mo  medical  man,  therefore,  can  any  longer  plead  the 
singularity  of  the  total-abstinence  creed  as  an  excuse 
for  his  non-recognition  of  it ;  and  although  a  certain 
amount  of  moral  courage  may  be  needed  for  the  advo- 
cacy and  the  practice  of  it,  yet  this  is  an  attribute  in 
which  the  author  cannot  for  a  moment  believe  his  bre- 
thren to  be  deficient.  Judging  from  his  own  experience, 
indeed,  ho  may  say,  that  he  has  found  much  less  diffi- 
culty in  the  course  he  has  taken  than  he  anticipated 
when  he  determined  on  it ;  and  that  he  has  met  with  a 
cordial  recognition  of  its  propriety,  not  merelj  on  the 
part  of  those  who  participated  in  his  opinions  but  did 
not  feel  called  upon  to  act  up  to  them  in  their  individual 
cases,  but  also  among  others  who  dissented  strongly  from 
his  scientific  conclusions,  and  who  consequently  had 
no  more  sympathy  with  his  principles  than  with  his 
practice. 

LoNiH)N,  March,  1860. 


■t/i^r 


'  <-v. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

What  abb  the  Effects,  Cobforeal  and  Mental,  of  Aloo* 
HOLic  Liquors  on  the  Healthy  Huican  System? 


Page 


Sbot.     I. — Influence  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Physical,  Che- 
mical, and  Vital  Properties  of  the  Animal 

Tissues  and  Fluids 1 

Corrugation  of  Tissues 1 

Coagulation  of  Albumen 3 

Impairment  of  Solidifiability  of  Fibrine  .        .  4 

Irritating  Action  on  Living  Tissues         .        .  6 

Temporary  Exaltation  of  Nervous  Power         .  6 

Change  in  Red  Corpuscles        ....  8 
Sbot.  II.  — Immediate  Consequences  of  the  Excessive  Use 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors  on  the  General  System  9 

Phenomena  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication      .        ,  9 
Symptoms  and  Post-mortem  Appearances  of 

Alcoholic  Poisoning      .....  12 

Pathology  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication        .        .  IS 
Sect.  HI.  —  Remote  Consequences  of  the  Excessive  Use  of 

Alcoholic  Liquors         .....  22 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System      ...  22 

Delirium  Ebriosum 23 

^* Delirium  Tremens ...._2.4. 

Insanity 28 

Oinomania 33 

Mental  Debility  in  the  Oflspring       .        .  39 

Inflammatory  Diseases  of  the  Brain  .  42 


ZXVl 


CONTENTS. 


Apoplexy 

Paralysis  and  Epilepsy 
Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Canal    . 

Irritation  and  Inflammation  of  the  Mu 

coos  Membrane  of  the  Stomach     . 
Inflammatory  Gastric  Dyspepsia 
Disorders  of  the  Intestinal  Mucous  Mem 

brane     

Diseases  of  the  Liver       .... 

Acute  and  Chronic  Inflammation  of  the 

Liver      

Hypertrophy  and  Atrophy  of  the  Liver 
Diseases  of  the  Kidneys  .... 
Diseases  of  the  Skin         .... 
General  Disorders  of  Nutrition 

Tendency  to  the  Deposition  of  Fat  . 
Diminished  Power  of  Sustaining  Injuries 

by  Disease  or  Accident . 
Liability  to  Epidemic  Diseases  .        . 
Gout  and  Rheumatism 
Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Arteries   . 
Spontaneous  Combustion  . 
Sect.  IV.— General  Effect  of  the  Excessive  Use  of  Alco 
holic  Liquors  on  the  Duration  of  Life  . 
Experience  of  Insurance  Offices       .        . 
Specially  Injurious  Influence  of  Excess    in 

Warm  Climates 

Statistics  of  the  Indian  Army  ,        , 


CHAPTER  IL 

Dobs  Physioloqt  or  Experienob  teach  us  that  Alco- 
holic LiciuoRS  should  form  part  of  the  ordinary 

sustenance  of  HAN,  PARTICULARLY  UNDER  CIRCUMSTANCES 
OF  EXPOSURE  TO  SEVERE  LABOR,  OR  TO  EXTREMES  OF 
temperature  ?  OR,  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND,  IS  THERE 
REASON  FOR  BELIEVING  THAT  SUCH  USE  OF  THEM  IS  NOT 
SANCTIONED  BY  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE,  OR  BY  THB 
ftBSULTS  OF  FBACTICAI<  OBSERVATION?        .  ,  .  . 


Page 

43 
46 

47 

48 
63 

55 
56 

67 
58 
59 
62 
64 
66 

67 
69 
71 
72 
73 

77 
77 

79 
83 


&2 


CONTENTS. 


XXVll 


Page 
Sect.  I.— Endurance  of  Bodily  Exertion  ...  92 
Sect.   II.  —  Endurance  of  Mental  Exertion         .        .        .       Ill 

Sect.  III.  —  Endurance  of  Cold 118 

Sect.  IV. — Endurance  of  Heat 138 

Sect.   Y. — Resistance  to  Morbific  Agencies       .        .        .       166 
Sect.  VI.  —  Consequence  of  the  Habitual  "Moderate"  Use 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors 163 

Effect  upon  the  General  System  and  Excretory- 
Organs  163 

Effect  upon  the  Stomach 171 

Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System  .  .  .176 
Effect  upon  the  Circulation  .  .  .  .178 
Effect  upon  Nutrition 182 


CHAPTER  m. 

AUE  THERE  ANT  SPECIAL  MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  BODILY 
OR  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN,  SHORT  OF  ACTUAL  DIS- 
EASE,   IN    WHICH    THE    OCCASIONAL    OB    HABirUAL    USB    OF 

Alcoholic    LiauoRS    mat   be    necessary  or  benefi- 
cial?        187 

Sect.     I.  —  Demand  for  Extraordinary  Exertion         .        .  187 

Sect.   II. — Deficiency  of  other  Adequate  Sustenance        .  194 

Sect.  III.  —  Deficiency  of  Constitutional  Vigor  .        .        .  199 

Pregnancy 208 

Lactation 210 

Childhood 214 

Old  Age 217 


CHAPTER  rV. 


Is  the  Employment  op  Alcoholic  Liquors  necessary  in 
the  Practice  of  Medicine?    If  so,  in  what  diseases, 

or  in   what   form    and    stages    of    disease,    is    the   USB 

of  them  necessary  or  beneficial?      ....      226 


UVUl  OONTBMTS. 

PMg* 

Sbot.     I. — Recovery  from  Shook      .        •       •       •        •      226 
S^.   II. — Trefttment  of  Acute  DiseasM  .       .       .       .228 
Resistance  to  the  Deprewing  Influence  of  Mor< 

hiflc  Agents 228 

Recovery  from  States  of  Prostration        .       .      232 

Support  under  Exhausting  Drains  .        .       .      234 

Forms  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  most  desirable      .      237 

Sect.  IIL—Treatment  of  Chronic  Diseases        .       .        .238 

Appendix  A 245 

"        B 260 

«         C 263 


Remarks  on  the  Use  op  Aioohol  fob  thb  Pbepabation 

OF  Medicines,  by  the  Editor  .        .        •        .        .        .      267 
Medical  Cbbtifioatb         .......      202 


Htt 

•          • 

.      226 

1           • 

.      228 

ieeofMor< 

• 

.      228 

• 

.      232 

• 

.      234 

•irable 

.      237 

• 

.      238 

• 

.      245 

• 

.      250 

'    f 

.      252 

USE   AND  ABUSE 


OP 


ALCOHOLIC    LIQUOES. 


BPABATIOir 


257 
282 


CHAPTER  I. 

WHAT  ARE  THE  EFFECTS,  CORPOREAL  AND  MEN- 
TAL, OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  ON  THE  HEALTHY 
SYSTEM  ? 

1.  In  replying  to  this  question,  it  will  be  desirable  to 
proceed  as  systematically  as  possible ;  since  the  results 
of  our  inquiries  upon  the  several  points  which  it  involves 
will  have  to  form  the  groundwork  of  our  further  investi- 
gations. We  shall  commence,  therefore,  by  examining 
the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  physical^  chemical^  and 
vital  properties  of  the  several  components  of  the  animal 
fabric ;  from  a  knowledge  of  which  we  shall  derive  im- 
portant assistance  in  our  appreciation  of  its  effects  upon 
the  human  system  as  a  whole. 


I.  INFLUENCE  OF  ALCOHOL  UPON  THE  PHYSICAL,  CHEMI- 
CAL, AND  VITAL  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  ANIMAL  TISSUES 
AND  FLUIDS. 

2.   The  most  important  physical  change  which  the 

contact  of  alcohol  effects  in  the  softer  animal  tissues,  is 
1 


i 


I 


2  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

that  of  corrug-ation  ;  *  which  change  is  entirely  due  to 
the  difference  in  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  tissue  for 
alcohol  and  for  water  respectively.  If  animal  mem- 
branes, a  mass  of  flesh,  or  coagulated  fibrine,t  be  placed 
in  alcohol  in  a  fresh  state  (in  which  they  are  thoroughly 
charged  with  water),  there  are  formed,  at  all  points 
where  water  and  alcohol  meet,  mixtures  of  the  two ;  and, 
as  the  animal  texture  absorbs  much  less  of  an  alcohohc 
mixture  than  of  pure  water,  a  larger  amount  of  water  is 
of  course  expelled,  than  of  alcohol  taken  up ;  and  the  first 
result  is  a  shrinking  of  the  animal  substance.  *'  Thus," 
says  Professor  Liebig,  "  9-17  grammes  of  bladder,  fresh, 
that  is,  saturated  with  water  (in  which  are  contained 
6*95  gi-ammes  of  water  and  2-22  of  dry  substance),  when 
placed  in  forty  cubic  centimetres  of  alcohol,  weigh  at  the 
end  of  twenty-four  hours  4-73  grammes,  and  have  con- 
sequently lost  4*44  grammes.  For  one  volume  of  alco- 
hol, therefore,  retained  by  the  bladder,  rather  more  than 
three  volumes  of  water  have  been  expelled  from  it."  % 

3.  Tliis  corrugating  effect  of  alcohol  will  be  usually 
increased  by  the  coagulating  influence  which  it  will  exert 
on  whatever  soluble  albumen  ||  the  tissues  may  contain. 
Both  these  results  will,  of  course,  be  proportioned  in 
their  degree  to  the  state  of  concentration  of  the  alcohol : 
bui  some  such  physical  change  must  always  take  place 
in  thg  walls  of  the  stomach,  whenever  alcohohc  fluids  are 
introduced  into  it ;  and  in  the  soft  tissues  of  the  body  at 

♦  Corrugation,  a  paickering-up  or  contraction  of  ioft  parts, 
t  Fibrine,  the  substance  of  which  muscular  threads  are  com- 
posed. 

X  On  the  Motion  of  the  Animal  Juices,  p.  11. 

II  Albumen,  the  white  and  nutritive  portion  of  the  blood. 


ON  THE  UEAtTUY  SYSTEM. 


8 


large,  wherever  alcohol  liiw  found  its  way  into  the  cur- 
rent of  the  circulation.  And  that  such  is  actually  the 
case  is  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy,*  who 
found  tliat,  when  animals  are  poisoned  by  alcohol  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach,  the  coats  of  that  organ  become 
so  thoroughly  imbued  with  it,  throughout  their  whole 
thickness,  that  no  washing  or  maceration  can  remove  it. 
He  found,  also,  tliat  the  tissues  remote  from  the  stomach 
become  impregnated  with  alcohol,  when  it  has  passed 
into  the  current  of  the  circulation ;  but  on  this  point  we 
shall  dwell  more  at  length  hereafter.  —  ("5»  IT.) 

4.  The  physical  change  just  described  must  have  an 
important  influence  upon  the  cltemical  relations  of  the 
tissues ;  since  it  is  impossible  that  alcohol  can  be  substi- 
tuted, in  however  small  a  proportion,  for  their  constituent 
water,  without  producing  a  decided  alteration  in  their 
chemical  properties,  which  must  disturb  the  normal  series 
of  changes  involved  in  their  nutritive  operations.  Among 
the  most  important  of  the  chemical  changes  which  alco- 
hol has  the  power  of  effecting  is  the  coagulation -f  of 
soluble  albumen ;  and  although  it  will  rarely,  if  ever,  be 
introduced  into  the-  mass  of  the  blood,  or  into  the  serous 
fluids  of  the  tissues,  by  any  ordinary  alcoholic  potations, 
in  a  sufficiently  concentrated  state  o  effect  this,  yet  we 
should  anticipate  tliat  its  presence,  even  in  a  very  dilute 
form,  must  affect  the  chemical  relations  of  albumen,  and 
can  scarcely  do  otherwise  than  retard  that  pecuhar  trans- 
formation by  which  it  is  converted  into  the  more  vitalized 
substance,  fibrine.    That  such  is  actually  the  case  will  be 

*  Experimental  Inquiry  concerning  the  Presence  of  Alcohol  in 
the  Ventricles  of  the  Uruln,  p.  29. 

t  Coar/ukttion,  hardening  of  fluids,  like  the  curdling  of  milk. 


4  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 

rendered  probable  by  the  considerations  to  be  presently 
adduced. 

5.  No  considerable  changes  of  a  physical  or  chemical 
nature  can  take  place  in  any  of  the  animal  tissues,  with- 
out disordering  their  vital  properties  also ;  and  we  have 
now  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in  which  these  properties 
are  affected  by  the  contact  of  alcoholic  liquids.  In  the 
first  place,  it  would  appear  that  the  sohdifiabihty  of 
the  fibrine,  which  is  its  special  vital  endowment,*  is  im- 
paired by  the  introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  fluid  which 
contains  it;  for,  when  an  animal  has  been  killed  by  the 
injection  of  alcohol  into  the  blood-vessels,  the  blood  often 
remains  fluid  after  death,  or  coagulates  but  imperfectly. 
(See  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy,  op.  cit)  Now,  as 
it  is  probable  that  nearly  all  the  organized  tissues  are 
developed  at  the  expense  of  the  fibrine,  it  is  obvious  that 
any  thing  which  impairs  its  organizability  must  have  an 
injurious  influence  upon  the  general  nutritive  operations ; 
and  we  shall  hereafter  find  confirmation  of  this  inference 
in  that  peculiar  condition  of  the  system  which  results 
from  excessive  habitual  indulgence  in  alcoholic  potations, 
and  of  which  the  imperfect  elaboration  of  the  fibrine  is 
one  of  the  special  characteristics.  —  (§  63.)  But,  sec- 
ondly, we  find  that,  when  alcoholic  Uquids  are  applied 
to  living  tissues,  especially  to  the  vascular  surface  of 
the  skin  or  mucous  membrane,  they  induce  redness, 
heat,  and  pain,  indicating  an  increased  determination  of 
blood  to  the  part.     These  symptoms  vary  in  intensity, 


♦  The  coagulation  of  albumen  and  the  fibrillation  of  fibrine  are 
two  entirely  diflferent  processes ;  the  former  being  a  simply  physical 
aggregation,  the  latter  tending  to  produce  an  organized  tissue, 
and  being  therefore  of  a  vital  nature.  —  Author. 


ON   THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


5 


according  to  the  state  of  concentration  of  the  liquiil,  anil 
the  length  of  time  during  which  it  remains  in  contact 
with  the  surface ;  and  they  may  pass  on  from  this  con- 
dition of  irritation  to  one  of  actual  inflammation. 

6.  Our  best  knowledge,  however,  of  the  influence  of 
alcohol  upon  the  vital  actions  of  the  animal  tissues,  is 
derived  from  microscopic  observations  upon  the  circula- 
tion of  blood  in  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot.  If  alcohol  be 
applied  to  this  membrane  in  a  veri/  dilute  state,  its  first 
effect  is  to  quicken  the  movement  of  blood  through  the 
vessels,  which  are  at  the  same  time  rather  contracted 
tlian  dilated.  But  this  state  of  things  gradually  gives 
place  to  the  opposite ;  for  after  a  time,  which  varies  with 
the  degree  of  the  dilution  of  the  alcohol,  the  circulation 
becomes  retarded,  and  the  vessels  dilated ;  and  a  further 
time  elapses  before  the  original  condition  is  recovered. 
If  the  alcohol  have  been  applied  at  first,  however,  in  a 
less  dilute  form,  the  first  stage  is  not  observed ;  but 
a  retardation  of  the  flow  of  blood  is  immediately  brought 
about,  and  a  considerable  dilatation  of  the  vessels  takes 
place.  The  retardation  may  be  such  as  to  amount,  in 
p'>me  parts,  to  a  complete  stagnation;  and  here  it  is 
noticed,  that  the  red  corpuscles  *  become  crowded  toge- 
ther, and  that  their  normal  form  is  lost ;  their  coloring 
matter  also  being  diffused  through  the  liquor  sanguinis.! 
Around  the  parts  in  which  the  stagnation  is  witnessed, 
however,  there  is  generally  a  border,  in  which  the  blood 
^ows  with  increased  rapidity.  Now,  this  perverted  state 
may  gradually  give  place  to  the  normal  condition,  $  if 

*  Red  corpuscles,  red  portion  of  the  blood, 
t  Liquor  sanguinis,  the  blood. 
X  Normal  condition,  healthy  condition. 
1* 


6 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


the  Stimulus  bo  only  applied  for  a  short  time ;  the  circu- 
lation being  restored  where  it  was  deficient,  and  the 
vessels  gradually  contracting  to  their  proper  size.  But, 
if  the  contact  of  concentrated  alcohol  be  prolonged,  it 
becomes  obvious  tlmt  the  tissue  has  been  killed ;  for  the 
circulation  is  never  re-established  in  it,  and  it  is  at  last 
separated  by  gangrene.*  We  rarely  witness,  in  cold- 
blooded animals,  those  consequences  of  the  apphcation  of 
irritants  which  proiHjrly  constitute  the  inflammatory 
process ;  but  this  process  is  liable  to  be  excited  in  man, 
and  in  warm-blooded  animals,  by  the  contact  of  alcohohc 
fluids  with  living  tissues,  if  the  contact  be  suiRciently 
prolonged,  and  the  alcohol  sufficiently  concentrated. 

7.  Now,  the  inference  to  bo  drawn  from  the  preceding 
details  is  these,  —  that  alcohol,  when  applied  to  the  hving 
tissues  in  a  sufficiently  dilute  form,  exalts  for  a  time 
their  vital  activity ;  but  that  this  exaltation  is  temporally 
only,  and  is  followed  by  a  correspcnding  depression. 
And  further,  that,  when  the  alcohol  is  m  a  state  of  suffi- 
cient concentration  to  act  more  potentially,  its  exhausting 
or  depressing  effect  is  manifested,  without  any  previous 
stage  of  excitement.  This  inference  we  shall  hereafter 
find  to  be  in  precise  accordance  with  that  to  which  we 
shall  be  conducted  by  ol)servation  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
upon  the  system  at  large ;  and  we  are  justified,  there- 
fore, in  regarding  alcohol  as  belonging  to  the  class  of 
stimulants,  and  as  subject  to  the  laws  of  their  operation. 
It  has  been  affirmed  by  some,  that  alcohol  in  small  doses 
is  tonic ;  f  but  of  this  there  is  no  adequate  proof.    The 

•  Gangrene,  death  of  the  part. 

t  Tonic.    A  tonic  is  whatovor  increases  the  vigor  of  the  diges- 
tive powers. 


;  the  circu- 
it, and  the 
size.     But, 
rolonged,  it 
ed ;  for  the 
it  is  at  last 
Js,  in  cold- 
plication  of 
lammatory 
'd  in  man, 
'f  alcoholic 
3uffic.'.ently 
'aled. 
preceding 
'  the  living 
or  a  time 
temporary 
spression. 
e  of  suffi- 
xhausting 
■  previous 
hereafter 
which  we 
)f  alcohol 
d,  there- 
class  of 
peration, 
all  doses 
►f.     The 

he  digcs- 


ON  THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM.  T 

property  of  tonic  remedies  is  to  increase  the  vital  contrac- 
tility of  the  animal  solids  in  general,  hut  more  especially 
that  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  Now,  although 
some  shght  effect  of  this  kind  is  at  first  manifested,  ttfter 
the  application  of  very  dilute  alcohol  to  a  living  mem- 
brane, yet  it  is  very  transitory,  and  is  succeeded  by  a 
much  longer  period  of  diminution  of  the  tonic  contrac- 
tiUty  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  And  we  shall 
hereafter  see,  that  the  supposed  tonic  properties  of  alco- 
hol in  small  doses  (especially  in  the  form  of  wine  or  malt 
liquor)  are  really  but  a  manifestation  of  ita  stimulant 
efiects. 

8.  Various  other  experiments  confirm  this  view  of  the 
effects  of  alcohol  on  the  animal  tissues ;  and  those  of 
Humboldt  are  particularly  valuable,  as  regards  its  spe- 
cial capability  of  producing  a  temporary  excitement  of 
nervous  power.  "  When  the  crural  nerve,"  he  says, 
"  of  a  full-grown  and  lively  frog  was  immersed  in  alco- 
hol, if  the  leg  was  already  exhausted  by  galvanization, 
the  alcohol  evidently  increased  its  excitability ;  and  this 
increase  was  lasting  (i.e.  for  a  time),  when  it  was  quickly 
removed  from  the  stimulating  fluid.  If  the  nerve  was 
left  in  it  for  some  time,  its  excitability  was  completely 
exhausted.  Its  application  e.^  liausted  instantaneously  the 
excitability  of  young  animals,  —  birds,  worms,  and  in- 
sects. If  the  tail  of  an  earthworm  or  leech  be  dipped 
for  only  four  seconds  in  alcohol,  it  becomes  stiff  and 
inexcitable  as  far  as  it  is  immersed;  and,  although  in 
frogs  and  puppies  this  state  of  rigidity  could  sometimes 
be  removed,  in  these  animals  it  never  could."  * 

*  Annals  of  Medicine,  1799,  p.  265. 


i; 


'' 


0  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 

9.  There  are  some  peculiar  effects  of  alcohol  upon 
the  hlood,  besides  its  influence  on  the  coagulability  of  the 
fibrine,  of  which  it  is  proper  that  special  mention  should 
be  made.  When  alcohol  is  mingled  with  fresh  arterial 
blood,  it  darkens  its  color,  so  as  to  give  it  more  or  less 
of  the  venous  aspect.  —  (j^  118.)  And,  when  this 
admixture  is  made  under  the  microscope,  it  is  perceived 
that  the  red  corpuscles  shrink,  and  that  a  considerable 
part  of  their  contents  becomes  mingled  with  the  liquor 
sanguinis.  Now,  although  the  pecuUar  functions  of  the 
red  corpuscles  have  not  yet  been  precisely  determined  by 
physiologists,  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  they  are 
among  the  most  important  constituents  of  the  blood ;  and 
there  is  strong  reason  to  believe,  that  they  are  subser- 
vient on  the  one  hand  to  the  respiratory  function,  and  on 
the  other,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  elaboration 
of  the  plasma  or  organizable  material  of  the  blood.  It  is 
highly  improbable,  then,  that  any  considerable  effect  can 
be  produced  upon  them,  without  seriously  impairing  the 
processes  of  aeration  and  nutrition ;  both  of  which,  as  we 
shall  hereafter  see,  are  prejudicially  influenced  in  other 
ways,  by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood. 

Having  thus  considered  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon 
the  properties  and  actions  of  the  component  tissues  of  the 
animal  fabric,  we  shall  inquire  into  its  effects  upon 
the  living  system  as  a  whole. 


ON   TUE   HEALTUY   SYSTEM. 


0 


II.    IMMEDIATE   CONSEQUEXCES   OF  THE   EXCESSIVE   USE 
OF  ALCOHOLK     LIQUORS   ON   TUE   GENERAL  SYSTEM. 


Phenomena  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication. 

10.  The  term  Intoxication  is  sometimes  employed  in 
this  country  to  designate  that  series  of  phenomena  which 
results  from  the  action  of  all  such  poisons  as  first  produce 
stimulation,  and  then  narcotism :  of  these,  however,  alco- 
hol is  the  tjipe ;  and  the  term  is  commonly  applied  to 
alcohoUc  intoxication  alone.  It  is  worthy  of  notice, 
however,  that  the  designation  is  now  given  by  French 
writers  to  the  series  of  remote  or  constitutional  effects 
consequent  upon  the  introduction  of  ani/  poisonous  agent 
into  the  blood :  thus  we  meet  with  the  terms  "  arsenical 
intoxication,"  "iodine intoxication,"  and  even  " purulent 
intoxication."  In  fact,  it  is  there  considered  an  equiva- 
lent (as  its  etymology  denotes)  of  our  word  poisoning- ; 
and  the  fact  that  such  a  term  should  be  in  common  use  in 
this  country,  to  designate  the  ordinary  results  of  the  in- 
gestion of  alcoholic  liquors,  is  not  without  its  significance ; 
for,  if  the  classical  term  "  intoxication  "  be  habitually 
employed  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Saxon  "  drunkenness," 
we  are  justified  in  turning  that  classical  term  into  English 
again,  and  in  asserting  that  the  condition  of  drunkenness ^ 
in  all  its  stages^  is  one  of  poisoning.  That  such  is 
indeed  the  case  will  become  obvious  from  an  examination 
of  its  symptoms,  and  from  a  comparison  of  them  with 
those  of  the  cases  in  which  a  fatal  result  has  supervened 
upon  excessive  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors.  To  such 
an  examination  we  shall  now  proceed ;  first,  detailing  the 
symptoms  of  the  slighter  forms  of  intoxication;  then, 


10 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


those  of  the  deeper ;  and,  lastly,  those  of  the  severest 
cases  ;  and  afterwards  inquiring  into  the  pathological 
state  from  which  those  symptoms  proceed,  and  the  modus 
operandi  *  of  the  agent  that  has  produced  it. 

11.  Among  the^rs^  effects  of  the  ingestion  f  of  alco- 
hohc  liquors,  in  sufficient  amount  to  produce  their  charac- 
teristic influence,  are,  in  most  persons,  an  increase  in  the 
force  and  rapidity  of  the  heart's  contractions  ;  producing 
a  full,  frequent,  and  strong  pulse.  With  this,  there 
seems  to  be  a  general  exaltation  of  the  organic  functions  ; 
the  appetite  and  the  digestive  power  being  increased,  and 
the  secretions  augmented,  especially  those  of  the  skin 
and  kidneys.  But  it  is  obvious  that  the  encephalic  % 
centres  of  the  nervous  system  are  specially  acted  on  by 
the  stimulus ;  for  we  observe  all  the  manifestations  of  an 
excited  action  in  them,  such  as  talkativeness,  rapidity 
and  variety  of  thought,  exhilaration  of  the  spirits,  ani- 
mation of  the  features  and  gestures,  flushed  countenance, 
and  suffusion  of  the  eyes.  During  slight  intoxication, 
the  prevailing  dispositions  and  pursuits  are  often  made 
manifest ;  and  hence  the  saying,  "  In  vino  Veritas^  || 
The  irritable  and  ill-tempered  become  quarrelsome ;  the 
weak  and  silly  are  boisterous  with  laughter  and  mirth^ 
and  profuse  in  offers  of  service ;  and  the  sad  and  hypo- 
chondriacal readily  burst  into  tears,  and  dwell  on  mourn- 
ful topics.  It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  men 
habitually  melancholy  become  highly  mirthful,  when 
they  have  drunk  enough  to  excite  them ;  but  this  seems 

*  Modiis  operandi,  mode  of  operation. 

t  Ingestion,  taking  in  or  swallowing. 

X  Encephalic,  connected  with  the  brain. 

II   III  vino  Veritas,  an  inebriated  person  lets  out  the  truth. 


/^ 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


11 


the  severest 

pathological 

id  the  modus 

>n  t  of  alco- 
their  charac- 
3rease  in  the 
;  producing 
this,  there 
c  functions  ; 
'reased,  and 
>f  the  skin 
encephalic  % 
cted  on  by 
itions  of  an 
s,  rapidity 
pirits,  ani- 
untenance, 
^toxication, 
ften  made 

ome;  the 
nd  mirth, 
^nd  hypo- 
>n  mourn- 
that  men 
ul,  when 
lis  seems 


f 

I 


truth. 


rather  to  be  the  case  when  the  melancholy  results  from 
external  depressing  influences  than  when  it  is  constitu- 
tional ;  and  hence  it  is  that  too  many  persons  in  circum- 
stances of  distress  or  difficulty  have  recourse  to  the 
bottle  for  temporary  solace  from  their  cares.  If  no  more 
liquor  be  taken  than  is  sufficient  to  produce  this  condi- 
tion, it  gradually  subsides,  and  is  followed  by  a  state  of 
the  opposite  character ;  the  appetite,  the  digestive  power, 
and  the  organic  functions  in  general,  being  lowered  in 
activity,  the  skin  dry,  the  secretions  diminished,  the 
spirits  depressed,  and  the  power  of  mental  exertion  for 
a  time  impaired.  For  this  condition,  sleep  and  absti- 
nence (not  merely  from  a  renewal  of  the  stimulus,  but 
from  more  food  than  the  stomach  really  demands)  are 
the  most  effectual  remedies. 

12.  The  state  of  mental  excitement  just  described  is 
very  similar  to  the  incipient  stage  of  phrenitis  or  mania. 
It  is  not  a  uniform  exaltation  of  the  mental  powers,  but 
in  some  degree  a  perversion  of  them ;  for  that  voluntary 
control  over  the  current  of  thought,  which  is  the  distin- 
guishing character  of  the  sane  mind  of  man,  is  consider- 
ably weakened,  so  that  the  heightened  imagination  and 
enlivened  fancy  have  more  unrestricted  exercise ;  and, 
whilst  ideas  and  images  succeed  each  other  in  the  mind 
with  marvellous  readiness,  no  single  train  of  thought  can 
be  carried  out  with  the  same  continuity  as  in  the  state  of 
perfect  sobriety.  This  weakening  of  the  voluntary  con- 
trol over  the  mental  operations  must  be  regarded,  then, 
as  an  incipient  stage  of  insanity. 

13.  If  the  first  dose  of  alcohol  bo  such  as  to  produce 
more  potent  effects,  or  if,  as  in  ordinary  intoxication,  it 
be  renewed  after  the  first  effects  have  already  been  mani- 


12 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


fested,  the  second  stage  is  induced,  in  "which  not  merely 
the  intellectual  but  the  sensorial  apparatus  is  disturbed. 
The  voluntary  control  over  the  direction  of  the  thoughts 
is  completely  lost,  and  the  excitement  has  more  the  char- 
acter of  delirium  ;  the  ideas  becoming  confused,  the 
reasoning  powers  disordered,  and  hallucinations  some- 
times presenting  themselves.  At  the  same  time,  vertigo, 
double  vision,  tinnitus  aurium,*  and  various  other  sensory 
illusions,  occur ;  the  muscular  movements  become  tremu- 
lous and  unsteady,  the  voice  thick,  the  eyes  vacant,  and 
the  face  commonly  pale.  Vomiting  frequently  occurs 
in  this  state  ;  and,  when  it  does,  the  consecutive  stage  is 
usually  either  cut  short,  or  is  abated  in  intensity.  The 
poisonous  effects  may  proceed  no  further  than  this ;  the 
drunkard  falling  into  a  heavy  sleep,  from  wliich  he 
awakes  to  feel  the  consequences  of  his  transgression. 
These  consequences  differ  in  some  degree  with  the  pre- 
vious habits.  Those  unaccustomed  to  such  excesses 
usually  suffer  from  headache  and  feverishness,  with  a 
dry  and  furred  tongue,  complete  anorexia,!  Avith  a  par- 
ticular loathing  for  alcoholic  drinks,  inability  for  mental 
or  bodily  exertion,  and  depression  of  spirits  ;  and  only 
recover  from  this  condition  after  prolonged  repose  and 
abstinence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  to  whom  it  is 
habitual,  although  his  general  condition  is  nearly  the 
same,  craves  for  a  further  dose  of  his  stimulant ;  and, 
when  he  has  obtained  it,  he  is  able  to  take  food,  and  to 
proceed  with  his  ordinary  avocations. 

14.  In  the  third  and  most  profound  stage  of  intoxica- 
tion, there  is  extreme  diminution  or  entire  suspension  of 

♦  Tinnitus  auritim,  ringing  in  the  ears. 

t  Anorexia,  loss  of  appetite,  aversion  to  food. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


13 


h  not  merely 
is  disturbed, 
the  thoughts 
ore  the  char- 
onfused,  the 
itions  some- 
ime,  vertigo, 
ther  sensory 
Jome  tremu- 
vacant,  and 
ntlj  occurs 
ive  stage  is 
'sity.     The 
this;   the 
winch  he 
nsgression. 
h  the  pre- 
h  excesses 
3s,  with  a 
ith  a  par- 
for  mental 
and  only 
'pose  and 
horn  it  is 
early  the 
It;   and, 
1)  and  to 

intoxica- 
'nsion  of 


cerebral  and  sensorial  power ;  a  state  of  coma  *  super- 
vening upon  that  hist  described.  This  state  may  vary 
in  intensity,  however,  between  one  of  deep  ordinary 
sleep,  from  Avhich  the  individual  can  be  so  far  aroused 
as  to  give  manifestations  of  sensibility,  and  a  torpor  a« 
profound  as  tliat  of  apoplexy  ;  and,  when  the  latter 
manifests  itself,  it  is  an  indication  of  danger,  especially 
when  the  respiratory  movements  are  impeded.  Accord- 
ins  to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Ojj-ston.t  the  face  is 
sometimes  pale,  sometimes  fluslied ;  the  eyes  vacant  and 
suflfused,  sometimes  glazed  :  the  pupils  dilated,  and  con- 
tracting very  imperfectly,  or  not  at  all,  to  light :  the 
temperature  of  the  head  is  generally  above  the  natural 
standard,  but  that  of  the  extremities  and  of  the  surface 
is  in  general  considerably  lowered,  or  but  little  affected 
in  milder  cases  ;  the  pulse,  which  was  at  first  (juick  and 
excited;  becomes  feeble,  small,  and  ultimately  slow,  or 
even  entirely  wanting  at  the  wrist,  according  to  the 
intensity  of  the  intoxication  :  the  respiratory  movements 
are  less  freipient  than  usual,  and  are  imperfectly  per- 
formed, exhibiting,  in  the'  severest  cases,  the  convulsive 
character  of  those  of  persons  suffering  from  aspliyxia.  X 
Strabismus.  ||  general  tetanic  •§>  convulsions,  or  spasms 
of  particular  parts,  sometimes  supervene  in  the  more 
advanced  states.  When  a  fatal  termination  occurs,  it  is 
usually  attributable,  as  in  apoplexy,  to  tlie  imperfect 
aeration  H  of  the  blood  ;    the  face  becoming  livid  and 

*  Coma,  torpid  sleep. 

t  Edinburgli  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vol,  xl. 
X  AspJiijxia,  suffocation.  ||   Strabismus,  squinting. 

§    Tetanic,  attended  with  rigid  contractions. 
II  Aeration,  process  by  which  the  blood  is  acted  upon  by  the  air. 
2 


14 


EFFEOTrf   OF   ALCOHOL 


tumid,  the  eyes  prominent,  and  the  lipH  l>kic.  In  some 
instances,  the  complete  prostration  of  the  cerebral  and 
sensorial  powers  comes  on  suddenly,  without  any  previous 
stage  of  excitement ;  and,  in  these  ca»e8,  it  is  noticed  that 
the  pupil  is  usually  contracted. 

15.  The  unfavorable  indications,  in  ca.so  of  poisoning 
by  large  doses  of  alcohol,  are  profoundness  of  insensi- 
bihty,  insufficiency  of  respiratory  movement,  with  conse- 
quent failure  of  circulation  and  imi)erfect  aeration  of 
blood,  the  pupils  either  nmch  dilated  or  contracted, 
coldness  of  the  extremities,  and  the  occurrence  of  stra- 
bismus or  tetanic  spasms.  When  these  symptoms  do 
not  appear,  the  ill  effects  pass  off,  in  a  great  measure, 
witliin  four  and  twenty  hours ;  but  it  is  usually  much 
longer  before  the  various  functions  regain  their  healthy 
tone. 

16.  In  fatal  cases,*  the  ap[)earance8  usually  resemble, 
more  or  less  closely,  those  of  asphyxia ;  the  right  side  of 
the  heart,  the  pulmonary  arteries,  and  the  systemic  veins 
being  loaded  with  blood :  whilst  the  left  cavities  and  the 
arterial  system  are  comparatively  empty,  the  blood  which 
they  do  contain  being  dark.  The  sinuses  f  and  the 
whole  venous  system  of  the  brain  are  turgid  with  dark 
blood ;  and  serous  effusion  %  is  usujUly  found  within  the 
ventricles.f  or  beneath  the  arachnoid ;  f  this,  however, 
being  variable  in  its  amount.  The  substance  of  the  brain 
is  unusually  white  and  firm,  as  if  it  had  lain  in  alcohol 


*  See  Dr.  Ogston,  loc.  clt. ;  and  Dr.  Peters,  in  New  York  Jour- 
nal of  Medicine,  voL  iii.  No.  9. 

t  Sinuses,  ventricles,  arachnoid,  names  of  different  portions  of 
the  brain. 

X  Serous  effusion,  effusion  of  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


15 


^-     In  some 

cerebral  and 

iiJiy  previous 

noticed  that 

^f  poisoning 
of  insensi- 
Viith  conse- 
aeration  of 
contracted, 
ice  of  stra- 
mptoms  do 
t  measure, 
lally  much 
Jir  healthy 

f  resemble, 
?ht  side  of 
;emic  veins 
»  and  the 
ood  wliich 
and   the 
vith  dark 
within  the 
however, 
the  brain 
1  alcohol 

'ork  Jour- 
•ortions  of 
!  blood. 


for  an  hour  or  two.  The  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys  are 
loadeil  with  venous  blood;  and  the  air-pa.ssages  of  the 
lungs  contain  more  or  less  of  frothy  mucus.  The  stom- 
ach usually  exhibits  but  little  departure  from  its  normal 
con(liti<:)n,  exee[)t  in  cases  where  drunkenness  has  been 
habitual,  or  where  the  fatal  dose  has  been  taken  in  a 
very  concentrated  form.  In  the  former  case,  the  nmcous 
coat  is  usually  found  thicker,  softer,  and  more  Viiscular 
than  usual;  this  change  sometimes  extending  even 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  small  intestines.  In 
rarer  instances,  the  coats  of  the  stomach  are  remarkably 
thickened  and  hardened.  Where  death  results  from  a 
very  concentrated  dose,  the  intense  injection,  almost 
amounting  to  black  discoloration,  of  a  powerful  irritant 
poison,  is  met  with.  This,  however,  has  been  rather 
noticed  in  experiments  on  animals,  into  whose  stomachs 
rectified  alcohol  had  been  injected,  than  in  human  sub- 
jects, by  whom  alcohol  is  very  rarely  taken  in  such  a 
form.  Of  the  condition  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  found 
in  habitual  drunkards,  an  account  Avill  be  given  hereafter. 
The  lilood,  in  most  cases  of  alcoholic  poisoning,  —  accord- 
ing to  the  observations  of  Dr.  Ogston  upon  drunkards, 
and  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Percy  upon  animals,  —  is 
either  fluid  or  imperfectly  coagulated. 

Patholog't/  of  Alcoholic  Intoxication. 

17.  The  pathological  character  of  intoxication  by 
alcohol,  and  the  modus  operandi  of  the  poison,  have 
been  fully  made  out  from  the  experiments  and  observa- 
tions just  referred  to;  and  it  is  very  important  for  our 
future  impiiries,  that  the  results  of  these  should  be  right- 
ly understood.     That  alcoholic  liquors,  when  introduced 


16 


EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL 


into  the  stomacli,  sliould  undergo  rapid  absorption  into 
the  sanguiferous  system,  is  precisely  what  miglit  be 
anticipated  from  our  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under 
which  that  absorption  takes  place ;  and  there  is  ample 
evidence  that  such  is  really  the  case.  Thus  Dr.  Percy 
was  always  able  to  detect  the  alcohol  in  the  blood  of  the 
animals  which  he  had  poisoned  by  injecting  alcohol  into 
their  stomachs,  provided  they  did  not  live  too  long  after- 
wards; and  MM.  Bouchardat  and  Sandras  have  more 
recently  determined  its  presence  in  the  blood  of  the 
gastric  *  veins.  The  rapidity  with  which  this  absorption 
takes  place  may  be  judged  of  by  the  ftujt,  that  in  one  of 
Dr.  Percy's  experiments,  in  which  the  animal  fell  lifeless 
to  the  ground  immediately  that  the  injection  of  the  alco- 
hol into  the  stomach  was  completed  (the  respiratory 
movements  and  pulsations  of  the  heart  entirely  ceasing 
within  two  minutes),  the  stomach  was  found  nearly  void, 
whilst  the  blood  was  strongly  impregnated  with  alcohol,  f 
Hence  it  may  reasonably  be  inferred,  that  in  all  cases  of 
ordinary  intoxication,  and  in  the  greater  number  of  cases 
of  death  from  the  introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  stomach, 
the  effects  are  produced  by  the  passage  of  the  alcohol 
into  the  current  of  the  circulation,  so  as  to  exert  a  direct 
action  on  the  nervous  centres.  And  this  influence  is 
confirmed  by  the  fact  that  Dr.  Percy  has  demonstrated 
its  presence,  in  considerable  amount,  in  the  substance  of 
the  In'aUi ;  thus  confirming  Dr.  Ogston's  assertion 
(which  had  been  called  in  question  by  Dr.  Christison 
and  others)  as  to  its  presence  in  the  fluid  eff"used  in  the 
ventricles  of  the  brain. 


*  Gastric,  pertaining  to  the  stomach. 


t  Op.  cit.  p.  61. 


ox   TIIK    IIKAI/niY   SY.STKM. 


17 


18,  In  some  of  tin;  (j.vjjcrinicntH  on  alcoholic  poisoning, 
however,  nuwle  by  Dr.  (.'hrintiMon  and  others,  it  would 
appear  as  if  the  total  Iohh  of  innensibility  and  voluntary 
power  so  instanlanconshf  followed  the  introduction  of 
the  poison  into  the  Htoinaeh, — especially  when  it  Avas 
introduced  in  a  corKHjntrated  form,  — as  not  to  admit  the 
idea  that  absorption  could  have  taken  i)lace  to  a  sufficient 
extent  for  the  p)'odu(;tioii  of  the  effect  hy  the  direct  action 
of  the  poison  on  the  rKjrvous  centres.  In  such  instances, 
the  fatsil  result  would  Hcujtn  rather  due  to  the  violent  im- 
pression made  ufxm  the  gastric  nerves,  especially  those 
of  the  sympathetic  systc^tti ;  Avhcreby  the  heart's  action  is 
suspended,  and  <leatli  takes  place  by  syncope,*  rather 
than  by  asphyxia.  Thi.s  is  the  case  with  many  other 
poisons,  when  adininist^jred  in  large  quantity  and  in  con- 
centrated form,  eHp(!(;ially  with  such  as  exert  a  chemical 
action  upon  the  animal  tissues  ;  the  effect  which  they 
produce  ^Lhrough  the  tHtrvous  system)  upon  the  heart 
closely  resemblijig  that  of  blows  uj)on  the  epigastrium, 
or  extensive  burns  of  the  cutaneous  surface.  Now,  as 
the  concentration  of  th«;  al<;ohol  will,  on  the  one  hand, 
favor  its  physical  and  chemical  action  ujx»n  the  tissues, 
whilst  on  the  other  it  will  l>e  unfavorable  to  absorption, 
which  takes  place  jrni(!h  more  readily  when  it  is  diluted 
with  water,  we  are  <'nabled  rejixlily  to  account  for  this 
difference  in  its  moduH  opnuuidi. 

19.  The  f^enrraf  Htinmlant  action,  which  is  for  a  time 
exerted  by  alcohol  introduced  in  small  quantities,  and 
diluted  by  admixture  with  the  general  mass  of  the  blood, 
is  easily  explained  uiKjn  the  ba«is  of  the  observations 


*  Syncope,  complete  and  »U(ldcn  low  of  sensation  and  motion. 
2* 


18 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


fii-st  detailed  (*§>  17) ;  but  its  special  power  of  exciting 
the  nervous  centres  to  augmented  activity  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  idea  of  some  special  relation  between 
alcohol  and  nervous  matter.  And  this  idea  is  fully 
borne  out  by  the  fact,  that  Dr.  Percy  found  alcohol  to 
exist  in  the  substance  of  the  brains  of  the  dogs  poisoned 
by  it,  in  considerably  greater  proportion  than  in  an 
equivalent  quantity  of  blood.  {Op.  cU.  p.  103.)  — 
This  fact  is  one  of  fundamental  importance,  as  showing 
us  how  directly  and  immediately  the  whole  nutrition  and 
vital  axjtivity  of  the  nervous  system  must  be  affected  by 
the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood ;  the  alcohol  being 
thus  specially  drawn  out  of  the  circulating  current  by 
the  nervous  matter,  and  incorporated  with  its  substance, 
in  such  a  manner  as  even  to  change  (when  in  sufficient 
amount)  its  physical  as  well  as  its  chemical  propesties. 
It  is  important  also  to  observe,  that  this  affinity  is  ob- 
viously such  as  will  occasion  the  continual  presence  of 
alcohol  in  the  blood,  even  in  very  minute  proportion,  to 
modify  the  nutrition  of  the  nervous  substance  more  than 
that  of  any  other  tissue ;  for  the  alcohol  will  seek  onf, 
as  it  were,  the  nervous  matter,  and  will  fasten  itself  upon 
it ;  just  as  we  see  that  other  poisons,  whose  results 
become  more  obvious  to  our  senses  (although  the  poisons 
themselves  may  exist  in  such  minute  amount  as  not  to 
be  detectible  hy  the  most  refined  analysis),  Avill  localize 
themselves  in  particular  organs,  or  even  in  particular 
spots  of  the  same  organ.  =* 

*  See,  for  illustrations  of  this  doctrine,  now  generally  admittccl 
by  physiologists,  Dr.  W.  Budd's  paper  on  Symmetrical  Diseases, 
in  Med.-Chir.  Trans,  vol.  xxv. ;  and  Mr.  Paget's  Lectures  on  Nu- 
trition, in  Medical  Gazette,  1847.  —  Authoe. 


iii'irL(i.n>Mni*m 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


19 


20.  The  selective  power  of  alcohol  apiMjars  to  lead  it 
in  the  fii*st  instance  to  attack  the  cerebrum^*  the  intel- 
lectual powers  being  affected  be**  -^  any  disorder  of  sen- 
sation or  motion  manifests  itself;  and  to  this  it  seems  to 
be  hmited  in  what  has  been  here  descrilx3d  as  the  first 
stage  of  into.xication.     But  with  the  more  complete  jwr- 
version  of  the  intellectual  powers,  which  characterizes 
the  second  stage,  we  have  also  a  distui-bed  function  of  the 
sensory  g'ang'/ia,'f  upon  which  the  cerebral  hemispheres! 
are  superposed ;  this  disturbance  being  indicated  by  the 
disorders  of  sensation,  and  also  by  the  want  of  that  con- 
trol over  the  muscular  movements  which  require  sensation 
for  their  guidance.     In  the  third  stage,  the  functions  of 
the  cerebrum  and  sensory  ganglia  appear  to  be  completely 
suspended;  and  those  of  the  medulla  ob/ongataW  ^^'^ 
spinal  cord  now  begin  to  be  affected,  as  we  see  to  be 
indicated  by  the  difficulty  of  respiration,  the  strabismus, 
the  dilated  pupil,  and  the  tetanic  spasms.     As  already 
stated,  the  sidmixture  of  alcohol  with  the  blood  has  a 
tendency  to  give  a  venous  character  even  to  that  of  the 
arteries ;   and,  when  this  tendency  is  augmented  by  im- 
perfect respiration,  the  blood  Avill  become  more  and  more 
venous,  until  its  influence  upon  the  medulla  oblongata  is 
so  directly  poisonous,  that  its  functions  are  completely 
suspended,  the  respiratory  movements  are  brought  to  a 
stand,  and  death  takes  phice  by  asphyxia,  precisely  as  in 
narcotic  poisoning  by  other  substances. 

21.   This  tendency,  however,  is  more  or  less  com- 


*  Cerebrum,  the  brain,     f  Sensnrij  ganglia,  centres  of  sensation. 
X  Cerebral  hemispheres,  the  two  halves  of  the  brain. 
II  Medulla  oblongata,  prolongation  of  the  brain  to  the  spinal 
marrow. 


EFFKCTH  OF  ALCOHOL 


pletely  antagonizecl  hy  tlio  oflTortH  wliich  the  system 
makes  (so  to  s[)cak)  to  get  rid  of  tlio  poison;  which 
efforts,  if  successful,  will  carry  it  off  in  the  course  of  a 
few  hours,  leaving  nothing  l)e]iitHl  it  but  the  disordered 
condition  which  it  has  prtMluced.  Wo  have  seen  that  an 
increased  secretion  *  takes  phico  by  the  kidneys  and 
skin ;  and  the  former  of  these  is  certainly  a  means  of 
eliminating  f  the  alcohol,  which  has  been  detected  in  the 
tirine  by  Dr.  Percy  {op.  cit.  \).  104),  —  contrary  to 
the  statements  of  many  physiologists,  who  have  denied 
that  it  ever  finds  its  way  into  that  secretion.  It  is 
indeed  a  general  rule,  that,  when  a  medicinal  or  toxic 
agent  X  produces  a  special  <lotcrmi  nation  to  some  particu- 
lar gland,  that  determination  is  the  means  of  eliminating 
it  from  the  blood ;  as  is  seen  in  the  diuretic  action  of  the 
neutral  salts.  And  it  would  not  seem  improbable,  there- 
fore, that  the  skin  also  should  })o  concerned  in  the  exha- 
lation of  the  alcohol ;  ||  more  especially  since  an  alcoholic 
odor  may  often  be  observed,  not  merely  in  the  breath, 
but  proceeding  from  the  i)crson  generally.  Dr.  Percy 
has  also  shown,  that  alcohol  may  bo  detected  in  the  bile 
of  animals  poisoned  by  it.     The  alcoholic  odor  of  the 

*  Increased  aecrelion,  &C.  incroMO  of  urino  and  sweat. 

t  Eliminatinr/,  separating. 

%  Medicinal  or  toxic  affent,  kc,  Tho  procons  of  combustion  takes 
up  oxygen,  and  forms  carbonic  acid,  which  is  expired  from  the 
lungs.  Alcohol,  being  compoHcd  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydro- 
gen, is  resolved  into  carbonic  acid,  which  is  corbon  and  oxygen, 
and  into  water,  which  is  oxygon  ond  hydrogen. 

II  Dr.  Macnish  states  (Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  175),  that 
he  has  met  with  two  instances  —  tho  one  in  a  claret,  the  other  in 
a  port  drinker  —  in  which  tho  cutaneous  perspiration  after  a  de- 
bauch had  the  hue  of  tho  liquor  they  had  drunk.  —  Author. 


u. 


ON   THE   IIEAl.TIIY    SYSTEM, 


21 


breath  is  a  snflRcient  indicatiorij  tlmt  alcoltolic  va[)or  i.s 
exhaletl  from  the  lungs  in  the  act  of  respiration  ;  but  the 
quantity  of  this  is  probably  small  in  compsnison  with 
that  which  is  carried  off  in  another  way,  namely,  by  the 
combustivc  jjrocess,  which  takes  place  in  the  blood  at 
the  expense  of  the  oxygen  it  contains,  and  which  con- 
verts the  alcohol  into  carbonic  acid  and  water ;  ])Oth  of 
which  are  set  free  by  exhalation  from  the  lungs.  The 
readiness  with  which  alcohol  is  thus  oxidize<],  in  fact,  is 
probably  one  cause  of  its  influence  in  giving  a  venous 
aspect  to  arterial  blood ;  since  it  will  withdraw  the  oxy- 
gen from  other  substances,  which  are  waiting  to  be  elimi- 
nated by  the  combustive  process,  and  the  accumulation  of 
which  will  deteriorate  the  character  of  the  fluid, 

22.  By  all  these  channels,  then,  the  alcohol  is  rapidly 
carried  out  of  the  system ;  so  that  recovery  may  be  cer- 
tainly expected,  if  hfe  can  Imj  sufficiently  prolonged  by 
warmth  to  the  surface,  by  artificial  respiration,  by  the 
administration  of  ammonia,  and  by  other  such  measures. 
The  depressing  character  of  the  influence  of  alcohol, 
when  carried  to  this  extent,  is  sufficiently  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  copious  depletion  cannot  be  borne ;  and  it 
is  on  this  account  very  important  to  distinguish  between 
alcoholic  poisoning  and  congestive  apoplexy,  for  which  it 
may  be  easily  mistaken  if  its  cause  be  not  known. 

It  would  be  easy  to  extend  the  foregoing  description 
by  a  more  particular  account  of  the  varieties  of  the 
modus  operandi  *  of  alcohol  proscrted  by  different  indi- 
viduals ;  but  it  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  do  so, 


*  Modus  operandi,  mode  of  operation. 


22 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


the  gi'cat  general  facts  presented  by  its  ordinary  opera- 
tion being  those  of  prime  importance  in  our  further 
investigations.  We  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  various 
forms  of  disease,  the  production  of  which  may  lie  assigned, 
with  more  or  less  probability,  to  the  prolonged  or  repeated 
action  of  alcohol  on  the  human  system. 


III.    REMOTE  CONSEQUENCES  OF  THE  EXCESSIVE  USE  OF 
ALCOHOLIC   LIQUORS. 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  Sijsleni. 

23.  From  the  peculiar  tendency  which  the  alcohol  in 
the  blood  has  to  disorder  the  functions  of  the  nervous 
system,  it  might  be  expected  that  the  habitual  ingestion 
of  alcoholic  liquors  in  excess  would  bring  about  a  more 
permanent  derangement  of  this  apparatus,  and  more 
particularly  of  its  encephalic  portion,  —  which  seems  to 
be  singled  out  by  alcohol,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
spinal  cord,  just  as  the  spinal  cord  is  affected  by  strych- 
nine,* almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  encephalon.f  This 
we  shall  find  to  be  the  case.  There  are,  in  fact,  scarcely 
any  diseases  of  the  encephalon,  except  such  as  are  of  a 
purely  constitutional  nature  (such  as  tubercular  |  or 
cancerous  affections),  which  are  not  so  much  more  fre- 
quent among  the  habitually  intemperate  than  among  the 
habitually  sober,  as  to  justify  us  in  regarding  the  excess- 
ive use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  among  the  most  efficacious 
of  the  conditions  of  their  production.  It  will  be  proper, 
therefore,  to  pass  the  principal  diseases  in  review  before 
us,  and  to  inquire  into  the  mode  in  which  habitual  excess 

*  Strychnine,  extract  of  nux  vomica,  a  violent  poison, 
t  Encephalon,  the  brain.       %  Tubercular,  scrofulous,  consumptive. 


mmimmmm^mmigm 


ON    THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


28 


in  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  tcJida  to  produce  each  of 
them. 

24.  Delirium  Ebriosum.  *  —  Considering  that  the 
state  of  intoxication  is  itself,  strictly  speaking,  a  transient 
paroxysm  of  insanity,  it  can  excite  no  surprise  that  a 
confirmed  state  of  mental  derangement  should  frecjuently 
result  from  the  repetition  of  the  cause  which  j)ro<luces 
the  single  paroxysm.  There  are,  in  fact,  some  indivi- 
duals in  whom  a  fit  of  positive  madness,  y)ersisting  for 
some  little  time  after  the  immediate  effects  of  the  stimulus 
have  8ul)sided,  is  brought  on  by  every  excess  in  drinking. 
The  head  becomes  extremely  hot ;  the  face  flushed ;  the 
pulse  very  frequent,  full,  and  hard ;  the  temper  is  ex- 
cessively violent,  the  individual  sometimes  attacking 
every  one  who  comes  in  liis  way,  and  being  always  prone 
to  ferocity  against  any  one  who  opposes  liim ;  and,  all 
sense  of  danger  being  lost,  he  is  not  deterred  from  vio- 
lence by  the  fear  of  personal  injury,  but  rushes  madly 
upon  what  may  prove  his  destmction.  This  condition, 
the  delirium  ebriosum  of  Darwin,  is  obviously  an  exag- 
geration of  one  of  the  ordinary  forms  of  excitement  in 
common  intoxication ;  and  it  usually  subsides  in  a  day  or 
two,  if  the  individual  be  simply  restrained  from  doing 
mischief  to  himself  or  others.  It  is  sometimes  accom- 
panied, however,  with  tremors,  even  in  the  midst  of 
violent  excitement ;  and  this  form  constitutes  the  transi- 
tion to  the  disorder  next  to  be  noticed.  The  frequent 
repetition  of  this  paroxysm  —  of  which,  as  of  ordinary 
drunkenness,  the  stimulating  action  of  alcohol  on  the 
nervous  centres  must  be  regarded  as  the  immediate 


Delirium  ebriosum,  drunken  madness. 


/  , 


24 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


cause  —  is  almost  certain,  like  the  recurrence  of  regular 
maniacal  paroxysms,  to  end  in  some  settled  form  of  in- 
sanity. 

25.  Delirium  Tremens,  —  The  habitual  drunkard, 
Avho  has  exhausted  his  nervous  power  by  continual  over- 
excitement,  is  hable  to  another  form  of  disordered  action 
of  his  brain,  which  is  connnonly  known  from  one  of  its 
most  marked  symptoms,  —  the  peculiar  tremor  of  the 
limbs,  —  as  delirium  tremens.  This  state  is  in  many 
respects  the  opposite  of  the  preceding.  There  is  little  or 
no  heat  of  the  head  or  flushing  of  the  face ;  the  skin  is 
cool  and  humid,  and  even  chilly ;  the  pulse,  though  fre- 
quent, is  small  and  weak ;  and  the  temper,  though  very 
irritable,  is  not  violent,  —  the  prominent  disposition, 
indeed,  being  anxiety^  and  apprehension  of  injury  or 
danger.  There  is  an  almost  entire  want  of  sleep ;  and, 
even  if  repose  be  obtained,  it  is  very  imperfect,  being 
interrupted  by  frightful  dreams.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  waking  state  is  frequently  so  disturbed  by  illusions 
of  a  disagreeable  or  frightful  nature,  that  it  diflFers  but 
little  from  that  of  sleep,  save  in  the  partial  consciousness 
of  external  things.  The  following  is  the  vivid  picture  of 
this  condition  given  by  one  who  has  himself  experienced 
it:* —  "For  three  days  I  endured  more  agony  than 
pen  could  describe,  even  were  it  guided  by  the  hand  of 
a  Dante.  Who  can  tell  the  horrors  of  that  horrible 
malady,  aggravated  as  it  is  by  the  almost  ever-abiding 
consciousness  that  it  is  self-sought?  Hideous  faces 
appeared  on  the  walls,  and  on  the  ceihng,  and  on  the 
floors ;  foul  things  crept  along  the  bed-clothes,  and  glar- 


*  Autobiography  of  J.  B.  Qough,  p.  70. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


25 


/ 


i 


ing  eyes  peered  into  mine.  I  was  at  one  time  surrounded 
by  millions  of  monstrous  spiders,  who  crawled  slowly, 
slowly  over  every  limb ;  whilst  beaded  drops  of  perspira- 
tion would  start  to  my  brow,  and  my  limbs  would  shiver 
until  the  bed  rattled  again.  Strange  lights  Avould  dance 
before  my  eyes,  and  then  suddenly  the  very  blackness  of 
darkness  Avould  appall  me  by  its  dense  gloom.  All  at 
once,  whilst  gazing  at  a  frightful  creation  of  my  distem- 
pered mind,  I  seemed  struck  with  sudden  blindness.  I 
knew  a  candle  was  burning  in  the  room,  but  I  could  not 
see  it ;  all  was  so  pitchy  dark.  I  lost  the  sense  of  feel- 
ing, too ;  for  I  endeavored  to  grasp  my  arm  in  one  hand, 
but  consciousness  was  gone.  I  put  my  hand  to  my  side, 
my  head,  but  felt  nothing,  and  still  I  kne  vv  my  limbs  and 
frame  were  there.  And  then  the  scene  would  change.  I 
was  falling,  —  falhng  swiftly  as  an  arrow  far  down  into 
some  terrible  abyss ;  and  so  hke  reality  was  it,  that,  as  I 
fell,  I  could  see  the  rocky  sides  of  the  horrible  shaft,  where 
mocking,  gibing,  mowing,  fiend-like  forms  were  perched ; 
and  I  could  feel  the  air  rushing  past  me,  making  my  hair 
stream  out  by  the  force  of  the  unwholesome  blast.  Then 
the  paroxysm  sometimes  ceased  for  a  few  moments,  and 
I  would  sink  back  on  my  pallet  drenched  with  perspira- 
tion, utterly  exhausted,  and  feehng  a  dreadful  certainty 
of  the  renewal  of  my  torments." 

26.  With  this  disturbed  condition  of  the  brain,  a  more 
or  less  disordered  state  of  the  digestive  apparatus  is  com- 
monly associated.  The  tongue  is  furred,  the  stomach 
unable  to  bear  food  without  vomiting  or  a  sense  of 
oppression  ;  the  bowels  are  usually  constipated,  or,  if 
they  be  relaxed,  the  stools  are  dark  and  offensive,  and 

the  urine  is  scanty.     Somethnes  the  disease  proceeds  to 
3 


ire 


EFFECTS   OF  ^ALCOHOL 


b: 


/ 


a  fatal  termination,  which  is  generally  preceded  by  con- 
tracted pupil,  occasionally  strabismus,  incessant  low 
delirium,  increase  in  the  muscular  tremor  almost  amount- 
ing to  subsultus  tendinum,  *  and  other  indications  of 
nervous  exhaustion :  the  pulse  becomes  thready,  and  at 
the  same  time  more  rapid,  so  that  it  sometimes  can 
scarcely  be  counted ;  cold  sweats  break  out  upon  the 
skin,  and  the  chilhness  of  the  surfaee  increases,  proceed- 
ing from  the  extremities  to  the  trupk.  Sometimes  a 
calm  supervenes  shortly  before  death;  whilst  in  other 
instances  the  patient  is  carried  off  in  a  convulsion.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  bad  symptoms  may  gradually  abate, 
and  the  supervention  of  profound  sleep  gives  to  the 
exhausted  energies  of  the  nervous  system  the  means  of 
restoration.  Sometimes,  however,  the  recovery  is  never 
complete ;  but  the  patient  remains  in  a  state  of  melan- 
cholia, with  more  or  less  of  deficiency  of  intellectual 
power ;  and  this  more  especially  happens  after  repeated 
attacks  of  the  disease. 

27.  Between  the  delirium  ebriosum  and  the  proper 
delirium  tremens,  there  are  several  intermediate  condi- 
tions ;  the  former,  indeed,  being  very  apt  to  pass  into  the 
latter,  if  depleting  measures  be  imprudently  adopted. 
The  latter  may  present  itself,  like  the  former,  as  the 
direct  and  immediate  consequence  of  the  excessive  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors ;  but  there  is  thb  important  differ- 
ence, —  that,  while  the  former  is  but  an  exalted  manifes- 
tation of  the  primary  excitement  ordinarily  produced  by 
alcohol,  the  latter,  supervening  at  the  end  of  a  prolonged 
debauch,  is  the  consequence  of  cxhmistion  produced 
by  continued  excitement.     Delirium  tremens  more  frc- 

*  Subsultus  tendinum,  twitching  of  tlie  tendons. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


27 


quently  occurs,  however,  when  the  accustomed  stimulus 
is  withheld  ;  and  it  is  then  no  less  obviously  the  result 
of  the  previously  exhausted  condition  of  the  nervous 
system,  which  nothing  save  the  renewal  of  the  potent 
stimulus  can  excite  to  any  thing  like  regular  action. 
In  fact,  this  terrible  state  is  the  manifestation  of  the 
disordered  condition  to  which  the  brain  has  been  brought 
by  habitual  excess,  and  plainly  exhibits  the  complete 
perversion  of  its  functional  power  and  of  its  nutritive 
operations.  In  fatal  cases,  no  morbid  appearances  are 
found  that  in  the  least  indicate  turgescence  of  the  vessels 
or  inflammatory  excitement,  unless  the  dehrium  have 
partaken  of  the  characters  of  that  which  directly  arises 
out  of  intoxication.  And  it  is  manifest,  therefore,  that 
the  diser  >ved  condition  must  be  in  the  nervous  pulp 
itself,  0  I  {  it  it  must  be  of  a  kind  to  keep  up  morbid 
and  irriiauve  activity,  at  the  same  time  that  the  tissue  is 
incapable  of  exercising  those  reparative  functions  which 
are  carried  on  in  the  healthy  condition  during  the  state 
of  repose. 

28.  Although,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  delirium 
tremens  is  the  immediate  or  the  consecutive  result  of  the 
excessive  use  of  alcoholic  hquors,  yet  it  may  occur  inde- 
pendently of  them  ;  but  its  other  causes  are  such  as 
resemble  the  excitement  of  alcohol,  in  producing  exhaus- 
tion or  depression  of  the  nervous  power,  —  such,  for 
instance,  as  excessive  depletion,  the  shock  of  severe 
injuries,  or  extreme  cold.  But  in  most  of  the  cases  in 
which  one  or  other  of  these  appears  to  be  its  exciting 
cause,  a  predisposition  has  been  estabhshed  by  habitual 
intemperance  ;  and  this  has  been  especially  remarked  of 
the  delirium  traumaticum. 


EFFECTS   OP  ALCOHOL 


29.  It  is  important  to  remark,  that  a  wli^hter  form  of 
this  disorder,  marked  by  tremors  of  the  luiiids  and  feet, 
deficiency  of  nervous  power,  and  occaaional  illusions, 
will  sometimes  appear  as  a  consequenco  of  habitual 
tippling,  even  without  intoxication  having  been  once 
produced.  And  a  still  slighter  manifestation  of  the  want 
of  control  over  the  muscular  apparatus  —  the  trembling 
of  the  hands  in  the  execution  of  a  voluntary  movement — 
is  familiar  to  every  one  as  extremely  frciquent  among 
the  habitually  intemperate.  We  thus  sec  that  the 
disease  is  at  least  as  much  dependent  upon  the  dis- 
ordered state  of  nutrition^  consequent  upon  the  habitual 
presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood,  as  it  is  UfKin  that  posi- 
tive exhaustion  of  nervous  power  consequent  upon  the 
violence  of  the  excitement,  which  is  the  more  immediate 
effect  of  the  stimulus,  v)^ 

30.  Insanity.  —  Such  being  the  case,  we  have  no 
difficulty  invunderstanding  how  the  liabitual  use  of  alco- 
holic liquors  in  excess  becomes  one  of  the  most  frequent 
causes  of  insanity,  properly  so  called,  i,e.  of  settled 
mental  derangement.  Upon  that  point,  all  writers  on 
the  subject  are  agreed,  however  much  they  may  diflfer 
in  their  appreciation  of  the  relative  frequency  of  this  and 
of  other  causes.  The  proportion,  in  fact,  will  vary 
according  to  the  character  of  the  population  on  which 
the  estimate  has  been  formed,  and  also  according  to  the 
mode  in  wliich  it  has  been  made.  Thus,  in  Pauper 
Lunatic  Asylums,  the  proportion  of  those  who  have 
become  insane  from  intemperance  is  usually  much  larger 
than  it  is  in  asylums  for  the  reception  of  lunatics  from 
the  higher  classes,  among  whom  intemi>eranco  is  less 
frequent,  while  causes  of  a  purely  moral  and  intellectual 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


nature  operate  upon  thera  with  greater  intensity.  And 
again,  if,  in  all  cases  in  which  habitual  intemperance  has 
been  practised,  it  be  set  down  as  the  cause  of  the  mental 
disorder,  the  proportion  be^-omes  much  larger  than  it  will 
be  if  (as  happens  in  many  cases)  some  other  cause  have 
been  in  operation  concurrently,  and  the  disorder  be  set 
down  as  its  result,  no  notice  whatever  being  taken  of  the 
habit  of  intemperance.  This  omission  must  be  particu- 
larly allowed  for,  when  the  relative  proportion  of  intem- 
perance to  other  causes  is  being  estimated  in  regard  to 
the  middle  and  higher  classes ;  on  account  of  the  strong 
desire  which  usually  exists  among  the  friends  of  the 
patient  to  conceal  the  nature  of  his  previous  habits,  and 
to  lay  his  disorder  entirely  to  the  account  of  the  cause 
from  which  it  has  seemed  immediately  to  proceed. 

31.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  those  who  have  weak- 
ened and  disordered  the  nutrition  of  the  brain  by  habitual 
intemperance  are  far  more  liable  than  others  to  be  strongly 
aflfected  by  those  causes,  moral  or  physical,  to  which  the 
mental  derangement  is  more  immediately  attributable ; 
so  that  the  habit  of  intemperance  has  contributed,  as  a 
predisposing  cause,  at  least  as  much  towards  its  pro- 
duction as  what  is  commonly  termed  the  exciting  cause 
has  done.  In  ftict,  of  predisposing  causes  generally,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  their  action  upon  the  system  is 
that  of  slowly  and  imperceptibly  modifying  its  nutritive 
operations,  so  as  gradually  to  alter  the  chemical,  physi- 
cal, and  thereby  the  vital  properties  of  the  fabric  ;  and 
thus  to  prepare  it  for  being  acted  on  by  causes  which, 
in  the  healthy  condition,  produce  no  influence.  And 
although  that  one  of  the  conditions  in  previous  opera- 
tion is  often  singled  out  as  the  cause,  from  which  the 
8« 


80 


EFFECTS  OP  ALCOHOL 


result  may  seem  most  directly  to  proceed,  yet  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  it  has  really  had  a  far  smaller 
share  in  the  production  of  the  disorder  than  those  re- 
moter causes  whose  operation  has  been  more  enduring 
and  really  more  effectual.* 

32.  In  the  Statistical  Tables,  published  by  the  Metro- 
politan Commissioners  of  Lunacy  in  1844,  comprehending 
the  returns  from  ninety-eight  asylums  in  England  and 
Wales,  we  find  that,  out  of  12,007  cases  whose  supposed 
causes  were  returned,  1,799,  or  nearly  15  per  cent,  are 
set  down  to  the  account  of  intemperance ;  but,  besides 
these,  551,  or  4*6  per  cent,  are  attributed  to  vice  and 
sensuahty,  in  which  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
must  have  shared.  Moreover,  in  every  case  in  which 
hereditary  predisposition  was  traceable,  this  was  set  down 
as  the  cause,  notwithstanding  the  notorious  fact  that  such 
predisposition  frequently  remains  dormant  until  it  is 
called  forth  by  habitual  intemperance.  It  is  not  more 
correct,  therefore,  to  regard  this  as  the  cause  of  the  dis- 
order, in  all  the  cases  in  which  it  is  traceable,  than  it 
would  be  to  regard  intemperance  in  that  hght,  in  every 
case  in  which  the  patient  had  previously  indulged  in 
alcoholic  excesses.  Of  the  2,526  cases,  then,  in  which 
^he  disorder  is  attributed  to  hereditary  predisposition,  a 
considerable  proportion  might  with  equal  justice  be  set 
down  to  the  account  of  intemperance.  And  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  that  the  same  practice  had  a  great  share  in 
the  production  of  the  disease  in  the  3,187  cases  set  down 
to  bodily  disorder,  and  in  the  2,969  for  which  moral 
causes  are  assigned. 


♦  See  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  Elements  of  Logic,  vol.  i.  p.  398. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


&1 


83.  If  we  turn  from  tl>i»  general  statement  to  the 
experience  of  individual  aHylums,  we  fretjuently  find 
the  proportion  much  higher ;  and  curious  variations  are 
sometimes  observable  iKJtwecn  the  returns  for  successive 
years.  Thus,  in  the  Ghwgow  Lunatic  Asylum,  accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  Dr.  Ilutcheson,  the  following  we:*e 
the  proportions  which  i^tc^  -nnce  bore  to  other  causes 
during  seven  years :  - 


Tmt. 

ptliMl*. 

Cmm  ■tHtni  ttw 

lUauM*  «M 
t)ir»ttl»rt,  k», 

3 

20 
5i 

no 

77 
47 
49 

Ol«M  wt»«T«  th«  1   €tMi  wh*re  fn. 
known.         |       Ui«  eauM. 

! 

Proportion  per  wnt  \ 

uf  ihtemperanoe  to 

other  causes. 

1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 

149 

1/57 
109 
327 
390 
304 
414 

34 
44 

20 
38 
41 
38 
62 

20 
30 
46 
31 
63 
90 
105 

13'4 
19-1 
23-1 
9-4* 
18-2 
24-7 
25-3 

Total 

2000 

300 

277 

375 

19-7 

Of  the  great  increase  which  presents  itself  in  the 
number  of  cases  attributoble  to  intemperance  during 


*  This  marked  diminution  in  the  per  centage  of  cases  attri- 
butable to  intompcrancti  in  chiefly  due  to  the  admission  into  the 
Glasgow  ARylurn,  during  the  year  1843,  of  a  number  of  lunatics 
who  had  previouHly  been  conAned  at  Arran,  for  the  most  part, 
during  several  yearn.  Of  the  origin  of  their  insanity  very  little 
was  known ;  and  they  were  chioiiy  assigned  to  the  head  of  "  He- 
reditary and  CouHtitutionnl  Predisposition,"  thereby  diminishing 
the  per  centage  of  the  other  causes.  Among  the  recent  cases 
admitted  during  the  year,  however,  the  per  centage  attributable 
to  intemperance  was  decidedly  less  than  usual ;  which  circum- 
stance is  attributed  by  Dr.  Ilutcheson  to  the  improved  condition 
of  trade,  which  caused  an  nde(iuato  demand  for  labor.  On  this 
point  he  makes  the  following  remarks,  in  his  report  for  1842,  p.  36 : 
"  It  may  be  said,  that  when  wages  are  low,  and  occupation  diffi- 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


II 


the  last  two  years  of  this  return,  Dr.  Hutcheson  thus 
speaks  in  his  report  for  1846 :  "  This  cause  appears 
to  have  operated  on  patients  of  all  ranks;  and  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  that  this  has  been  owing,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  the  excitement  in  which  the  community  was 
kept  by  that  universal  spirit  of  gambling  which  seized 
on  society  like  an  epidemic  mania.  There  is  a  great 
connection  between  general  excitement  and  the  craving 
for  stimulants,  as  may  be  every  day  seen  during  con- 
tested elections,  public  dinners,  races,  &c.  It  is  also  a 
fact  well  known  to  those  who  have  minutely  studied  the 
subject,  that  over-exertion  of  the  brain  leads  to  a  desire 
for  stimulants,  which,  however,  are  easily  enough  aban- 
doned when  the  brain  is  allowed  to  rest."  For  the  reason 
already  given,  it  is  probable  that  the  average  proportion 
of  19'7  per  cent  does  not  by  any  means  represent  the 
entire  number  of  cases  in  which  intemperance  was  the 
principal  cause  of  the  disease,  and  that  we  should  be 
within  the  truth  in  assigning  to  it  at  least  a  quarter  of 
the  whole  number  of  cases. 

34.  In  the  report  of  the  Aberdeen  Lunatic  Asylum 
for  1847,  we  find  intemperance  specified  as  the  cause  in 


cult  to  be  obtained,  men  will  have  less  money  to  spend,  and  con- 
sequently will  drink  less.  A  pretty  extensive  observation  of  the 
different  grades  of  the  working  classes,  for  upwards  of  fifteen  years, 
has  convinced  me  that  this  opinion  is  erroneous ;  for  I  have  gen- 
erally found,  that  want  and  intemperance  go  hand  in  hand. 
Whenever  a  man  falls  below  a  certain  point  in  physical  comfort, 
he  becomes  reckless,  and  sensual  enjoyment  forms  his  only  plea- 
sure. To  this  he  will  sacrifice  every  thing ;  and  habits  of  intem- 
perance are  frequently  acquired  in  seasons  of  distress,  which  the 
individual,  in  more  favorable  circumstances,  finds  it  impossible  to 
lay  aside."  —  AuTuoit. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


33 


seventeen  cases  out  of  ninety-three  admitted;  but,  of 
these  ninety-three,  there  were  eight  cases  in  which  lie- 
reditary  predisposition,  and  eleven  in  which  predisposition 
from  previous  attacks,  was  assigned  as  the  cause;  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  of  these  nineteen  cases  a  con- 
siderable proportion  might  be  set  down,  in  part,  to  the 
account  of  intemperance.  In  the  report  of  the  Dundee 
Lunatic  Asylum,  we  find  that  eight  out  of  fifty-two 
cases  admitted  are  set  down  to  intemperance ;  seven  were 
hereditary;  and  in  four  the  cause  was  unknown.  In 
other  asylums,  the  proportion  of  cases  returned  as  due 
to  intemperance  is  much  greater  than  in  those  already 
referred  to.  Thus,  in  the  Commissioner's  report  already 
cited,  we  find  that,  in  nine  provincial  private  asylums, 
the  proportion  which  the  cases  assigned  to  intemperance 
alone  bear  to  those  assigned  to  other  causes  is  no  less 
than  32-62  per  cent ;  independently  of  5-67  per  cent, 
which  are  set  down  to  the  account  of  "  vice  and  sen- 
suality." There  is  an  asylum  in  the  East  of  London, 
where  the  proportion  of  cases  attributed  to  intemperance 
alone  amounted  to  41-07  per  cent;  and  those  arising  out 
of  this  in  combination  with  other  vices,  to  22  per  cent  of 
the  whole  number  whose  causes  were  assigned.  And 
it  is  stated  by  Dr.  Macnish  {op.  cit.  p.  193),  that,  of 
286  lunatics  at  that  time  in  the  Richmond  Hospital, 
Dublin,  one-half  owed  their  madness  to  drinking. 

35.  Oinomunia.  —  There  is  one  form  of  insanity 
which  has  so  peculiar  a  relation  to  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  as  to  call  for  particular  consideration  in  this 
place ;  and,  in  order  that  its  characters  may  be  presented 
in  the  most  unexceptionable  manner,  the  author  avails 
himself  of  the  excellent  account  of  the  disease  which  is 


EVVKCVa  OF  ALCOHOL 


given  by  Dr.  IIutchcHoii  in  the  rcfKirt  of  the  Glawgow 
Lunatic   Awyluin  for  1842  (pp.  89 — 44) ;  deeming  its 
value  sufficient  to  juHtify  him  in  presenting  it  without 
abridgment.      The  <lcHignjition   Oinomaniay  ho  would 
remark,  lias  been  subHtituted  hy  Dr.  Ilutcheson  for  the 
less  appropriate  toitn  Dijmmiania,  used  by  other  au- 
thors.    "  This  form  of  nuiiiia,"  he  observes,  "  is  quite 
different  from  drunkenuesH,  which,  however,  may  lead 
to  it ;  the  diagnostic  *  mark  of  the  disease  lacing  the 
irresistible  propensity  to  swallow  stimulants  in  enormous 
doses,  whenever  and  wherever  they  can  be  procured. 
There  are  individuals  who,  at  the  festive  board,  inva- 
riably become  excited,  if  not  inttjxicated,  but  who  are 
otherwise  habitually  solier,  and  in  the  course  of  the  year 
di-ink  much  less  than  others  who  never  appear  to  be 
under  the  influence  of  stimulants.     Others  indulge  in 
their  potations  in  a  regular  manner,  and  daily  consume 
a  larger  quantity  of  liijuor  than  is  consistent  with  good 
health  or  sobriety.     All  these,  however,  possess  self- 
control,  and  can  at  any  time  refrain  from  stimulants ; 
but  those  affected  with  the  <lisojwe  cannot  do  so,  however 
convinced  they  may  bo  of  the  impropriety  of  yielding 
to  their  propensity,  or  however  desirous  they  may  be  to 
subdue  it.     I  repeat  that  the  <lisea»o  does  not  consist  in 
the  mere  act  or  habit  of  l)ecoming  intoxicated,  but  in  the 
irresistible  impulse  which  drives  the  unhappy  being  to 
do  that  which  he  knows  to  be  pernicious  and  wrong,  and 
which,  in  the  intervals  of  his  paroxysms,  he  views  with 
loathing  and  disgust.    He  derives  no  pleasure  from  taste, 
for  he  gulps  down  the  licjuor,  of  v/hatever  kind  it  may 

*  Diagno$tlc,  dUtinguiahing. 


f. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYf?TEM. 


85 


be ;  or  fi'om  society,  for  he  generally  avoids  society ;  l>ut 
he  only  derives  a  temporary  satisfaction  from  the  grati- 
fication of  his  insane  impulse,  or  rather  from  freeing 
himself  from  the  overwhelming  misery  which  the  non- 
gratification  of  his  impulse  inflicts  on  him.  The  disease 
appears  in  tliree  forms,  —  the  acute,  the  periodic,  and 
the  chronic. 

"  The  acute  is  the  rarest  of  the  three.  I  have  seen  it 
occur  from  hemorrhage  in  the  puerperal  stiite,  in  recovery 
from  fevers,  from  excessive  venereal  indulgence,  and  in 
some  forms  of  dyspepsia.  When  it  proceeds  from  any 
of  the  first  three  causes,  it  is  easily  cured  by  restoring 
the  strength  of  the  patient.  When  it  arises  fiom  the 
fourth  cause  mentioned,  it- is  not  so  easily  removed,  and 
is  very  apt  to  assume  the  chronic  form. 

"  The  periodic  or  paroxysmal  form  is  much  more 
frequent  than  the  acute.  This  is  often  observed  in  indi- 
viduals who  have  suffered  from  injuries  of  the  head, 
females  during  pregnancy,  at  the  catamenial  periods,  on 
the  approach  of  the  critical  jKMiod  and  afterwards,  and 
in  men  whose  brains  are  overworked.  When  it  occurs 
from  injury  of  the  head,  the  case  is  hopeless.  In  the 
other  instances,  it  may  be  cured.  In  some  cases,  it 
occurs  whenever  the  individual  paiiakes  of  stimulants. 
In  these,  total  abstinence  is  the  only  remedy.  Like  the 
form  about  to  lie  mentioned,  it  is  frequently  hereditary, 
being  derived  from  a  parent  predisposed  to  insanity  or 
addicted  to  intemperance.  In  such  cases,  the  probability 
of  cure  is  very  small.  The  individual  thus  affected 
abstains  for  weeks  or  months  from  all  stimulants,  and 
frequently  loathes  them  for  the  same  period.  But  by 
degrees  he  becomes  uneasy,  listless,  and  depressed,  feels 


86 


EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL 


incapable  of  application,  and  restless,  and  at  last  begins 
to  tb-ink  till  he  is  intoxicated.  He  awakes  from  a  rest- 
less sleep,  seeks  again  a  repetition  of  the  intoxicating 
dose,  and  continues  the  same  course  for  a  week  or  longer. 
Then  a  stjite  of  apathy  and  depression  follows,  during 
which  he  feels  a  loathing  for  stimulants,  is  the  prey  of 
remorse,  and  regrets  bitterly  liis  yielding  to  his  malady. 
This  is  followed  by  fresh  vigor,  diligent  application  to 
l)Lisiness,  and  a  determined  resolution  never  again  to  give 
way.  But,  alas  !  sooner  or  later  the  paroxysm  recurs ; 
and  the  same  scene  is  re-enacted,  till  ultimately,  unless 
the  disefise  be  checked,  he  falls  a  victim  to  the  physical 
effects  of  intemperance,  becomes  maniacal  or  imbecile, 
or  affected  with  the  form  of  the  disease  next  to  be  men- 
tioned. 

"  Of  all  the  forms  of  Oino7nania,  the  most  common 
is  the  chronic.  The  causes  of  this  are  injuries  of  the 
head,  diseases  of  the  heart,  hereditary  predisposition, 
and  intemperance.  This  is  by  far  the  most  incurable 
form  of  the  malady.  The  patient  is  incessantly  under 
the  most  overAvheh^ing  desire  for  stimulants.  He  will 
disregard  every  impediment,  sacrifice  comfort  and  reputa- 
tion, withstand  the  claims  of  affection,  consign  his  family 
to  misery  and  disgrace,  and  deny  himself  the  common 
necessaries  of  life  to  gratify  his  insane  propensity.  In 
the  morning,  morose  and  fretful,  disgusted  with  himself, 
and  dissatisfied  with  all  around  him,  weak  and  tremu- 
lous, incapable  of  any  exertion  either  of  mind  or  body, 
his  first  fechng  is  a  desire  for  stimulants,  with  every 
fresh  dose  of  which  he  recovers  a  certain  degree  of  vigor 
both  of  body  and  mind,  till  he  feels  comparatively  com- 
fortable.    A  few  hours  pass  without  the  craving  being 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


87 


so  strong ;  but  it  soon  returns,  and  the  patient  drinks 
till  intoxication  is  produced.  Then  succeed  the  restless 
sleep,  tlie  suffering,  the  comparative  tmnc^uillity,  the 
excitement,  and  the  state  of  insensibility;  and,  unless 
absolutely  secluded  from  all  means  of  gratifying  the 
propensity,  the  patient  continues  the  same  course  till  he 
dies,  or  becomes  imbecile.  This  is  that  fearful  state 
portrayed  by  Charles  Lamb,  in  which  resison  revisits  the 
mind  only  during  the  transient  period  of  incipient  intoxi- 
cation. 

"  It  must  be  remarked,  that,  in  all  these  forms  of  the 
disease,  the  patient  is  perfectly  incapable  of  self-control ; 
that  he  is  impelled  by  an  irresistible  impulse  to  graiify 
his  propensity ;  that,  while  the  paroxysm  is  on  him,  he 
is  regardless  of  his  health,  his  life,  and  all  that  can  make 
life  dear  to  him ;  that  he  is  prone  to  dissipate  his  pro- 
perty, and  easily  becomes  the  prey  of  the  designing; 
and  that,  in  many  cases,  he  exhibits  a  propensity  to 
commit  homicide  or  suicide.  He  is  thus  dangerous  to 
himself  and  others;  and,  however  responsible  he  may 
have  been  for  bringing  the  disease  on  himself,  his  respon- 
sibility ceases  as  soon  as  he  comes  under  the  influence  of 
the  malady.  The  disease,  however,  may  not  be  brought 
on  by  the  act  of  the  individual ;  and  then  it  is  clear  at 
once,  that  neither  directly  nor  indirectly  c^s  he  be 
deemed  responsible.  But,  suppose  that  it  v\jre  the 
result  of  his  previous  conduct,  I  repeat  that,  however 
culpable  he  may  have  been  for  that,  he  is  not  a  respon- 
sible being  while  afflicted  with  the  mala».iy ;  for  I  can  see 
no  distinction  between  this  form  of  the  disease  and  any 
other  which  has  been  induced  by  the  habits  or  acts  of 
the  individual. 


iOBii 


38 


EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL 


"  The  only  cliance  of  cure  or  allevi.ation  is  from  atten- 
tion  to   the   health,   and  abstinence   from   intoxicating 
liquors.     Neither  can  be  secured  so  long  as  the  patient 
is  at  large;   and  no  amendment  can  be  depended  on, 
unless  he  has  undergone  a  long  course  of  discipline  and 
probation.      Considering,   then,    that   the   indi\adual   is 
irresponsible  and  dangerous  to  himself  and  others ;   that, 
if  left  uncontrolled,  he  will  ruin  his  family ;  and  that  his 
disease  can  be  treated  only  in  an  asylum,  —  it  is  not 
only  merciful  to  him  and  his  relatives,  but  necessary  for 
the  security  of  the  public,  that  he  be  deprived  of  the 
liberty  which  he  abuses  and  perverts,  and  that  he  should 
be  prevented  from  committing  crimes  instead  of  being 
punished,  or,  I  should  rather  say,  being  the  object  of 
vindictive  infliction  after  he  has  perpetrated  them.     So 
convinced  are  some,  affected  ■with  the  periodical  form  of 
the  disease,  of  the  necessity  of  being  controlled,  that, 
when  the  first  symptoms  of  their  paroxysm  are  felt,  they 
voluntarily  enter  an  asylum,  and  remain  till  the  attack 
has  passed  off.     These,  however,  are  men  of  stronger 
minds,   though,   with   all   their   strength,    incapable   of 
resisting  the  disease ;   and,  surely,  what  they  feel  to  be 
their  only  refuge  to  avoid  the  impending  evil,  it  cannot 
be  unjust  or  harsh  to  force  on  others  whose  minds  are 
more  impaired.     Such  cases  soon  become  rational  in  an 
asylum:    and,  when  the  individual  can  so  far  control 
himself  as  voluntarily  to  surrender  his  liberty  on  the 
first  premonitory  symptoms  of  the  malady  presenting 
themselves,  he  may  be  dismissed  after  a  shorter  proba- 
tion.     It  is  otherwise  with  those  who  have  not  that 
self-control,  or  who  fancy  that  they  are  unjustly  inter- 
fered with  when  checked  in  their  career.     7/hey  require 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


39 


a  much  longer  probation,  which  should  be  increased  at 
each  return  of  their  malady. 

"  Of  the  chronic  form,  I  have  seen  only  one  case 
completely  cured,  and  that  after  a  seclusion  of  two  years' 
duration.  In  general,  it  is  not  cured ;  and  no  sooner  is 
the  patient  liberated  than  he  manifests  all  the  symptoms 
of  his  disease.  Paradoxical  though  the  statement  may 
appear  to  be,  such  individuals  are  sane  only  when  con- 
fined in  an  asylum." 

The  superintendent  of  the  Dundee  xVsylum.  in  remark- 
ing u  ^on  the  frequent  causation  of  insanity  by  intempe- 
rance, makes  a  very  similar  statement  of  the  results  of 
his  observations,  and  regrets  that  there  are  not  in  this 
country  such  asylums  as  ai-e  understood  to  exist  in  the 
United  States,  for  the  reception  of  those  incorrigible 
drunkards  in  whom  the  power  of  self-control  has  been 
altogether  destroyed  by  their  repeated  yielding  to  the 
craving  for  alcoholic  stimulants. 

36.  Mental  Debility  in  the  Offspring:  —  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  accumulate  further  proof  in  sup- 
port of  the  assertion,  that,  of  all  the  single  causes  of 
insanity,  habitual  intemperance  is  the  most  potent,  and 
that  it  aggravates  the  operation  of  other  causes.  We 
have  now  to  show  that  it  has  a  special  tendency  to  pro- 
duce idiocy,  insanity,  or  mental  debihty,  in  the  offspring". 
Looking  to  the  decided  tendency  to  hereditary  predis- 
position in  the  ordinary  forms  of  insanity  ;  looking  also 
to  the  fact,  that  any  perverted  or  imperfect  conditions  of 
the  nutritive  functions  established  in  the  parent  are  also 
liable  to  manifest  themselves  in  the  offspring,  as  shown  in 
the  transmission  of  the  gouty  and  tubercular  diatheses  ;  * 

*  Tubercular  diathesis,  scrofulous  or  consumptive  condition  of 
the  body. 


40 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


'«  ■( 


we  should  expect  to  find  that  the  offspring  of  habitual 
drunkards  would  share  with  those  of  lunatics  in  the  pre- 
disposition to  insanity,  and  that  they  would,  moreover,  be 
especially  prone  to  intemperate  habits.     That  such  is  the 
case  is  within  the  knowledge  of  all  who  have  enjoyed  exten- 
sive opportunities  of  observation ;  and  the  fact  has  come 
down  to  us  sanctioned  by  the  experience  of  antiquity. 
Thus  Plutarch  cays,  "One  drunkard  begets  another;" 
and   Aristotle  remarks,   that  "  drunken  women  bring 
forth  children  hke  unto  themselves."      Dr.  W.  A.  F. 
Browne,  the  resident  physician  of  the  Crichton  Lunatic 
Asylum  at  Dumfries,  makes  the  following  statements : 
"  The  drunkard  not  only  injures  and  enfeebles  his  own 
nervous   system,   but  entails  mental  disease  upon  his 
family.     His  daughters  are  nervous  and  hysterical ;  his 
sons  are  weak,   wayward,   eccentric,  and  sink  insane 
under  the  pressure  of  excitement,  of  some  unforeseen 
exigency,  or  of  the  ordinary  calls  of  duty.     At  present, 
I  have  two  patients  who  appear  to  inherit  a  tendency  to 
unhealthy  action  of  the  brain,  from  mothers   addicted 
to  drinking ;  and  another,  an  idiot,  whose  father  was  a 
drunkaixl."*    The  author  has  learned  from  Dr.  Hutche- 
son,  that  the  results  of  his  observations  are  precisely  in 
accordance  with  the  foregoing.     On  this  point,  however, 
the  most  striking  fact  that  the  writer  has  met  with  is 
contained  in  the  Report  on  Idiocy  lately  made  by  Dr. 
Howe  to  the  legi,  'nture  of  Massachusetts  :   "  The  habits 
of  the    parents   of  three   hundred  of  the  idiots  were 
learned  ;   and  a  hundred  and  forty-five,  or  nearly  one' 
half,  are  reported  as  '  known  to  be  habitual  drunkards. ' 

*  Moral  Statistics  of  Glasgow,  by  William  Logan,  1849,  p.  20. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


41 


n 


Such  parents,  it  is  affirmed,  give  a  weak  and  lax  consti- 
tution to  their  children ;  who  are,  consequently,  '  deficient 
in  bodily  and  vital  energy,'  and  predisposed  by  their  very 
organization  to  have  cmvings  for  alcoholic  stimulants : 
many  of  these  children  are  feeble,  and  live  irreguhirly. 
Having  a  lower  vitality,  they  feel  the  want  of  some 
stimulation.  If  they  pursue  the  course  of  their  fathers, 
which  they  have  more  temptation  to  follow,  and  less 
power  to  avoid,  than  the  children  of  the  temperate,  they 
add  to  their  hereditary  weakness,  and  increase  the  ten- 
dency to  idiocy  in  their  constitution ;  and  this  they  leave 
to  their  children  after  them.  The  parents  of  case  No.  62 
were  drunkards,  and  had  seven  idiotic  children."* 

37.  There  is  a  prevalent  impression  that  idiocy  is  par- 
ticularly liable  to  occur  in  the  offspring  of  a  procreation 
that  has  taken  place  when  one  or  both  of  the  parents  were 
in  a  state  of  intoxication.  A  striking  example  of  this 
kind  is  related  in  the  Phrenological  Journal  (vol.  vii. 
p.  471)  :  Both  the  parents  were  healthy  and  intelligent, 
and  one  at  least  habitually  sober ;  but  both  were  partially 
intoxicated  at  the  time  of  the  intercourse,  and  the  off- 
spring was  completely  idiotic.  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  that  the  monomania  of  inebriety  not  only  acts 
upon,  and  renders  more  deleterious,  whatever  latent 
taint  may  exist,  but  vitiates  or  impairs  the  sources  of 
health  for  several  generations.  That  the  effects  of  drunk- 
enness are  highly  inimical  to  a  permanent  healthy  state 
of  the  brain  is  often  proved  at  a  great  distance  of  time 
from  tlie  course  of  intemperance,  and  long  after  the 
adoption  of  regular  habits. 


*  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  April,  1849,  p.  437. 

4.* 


1 1 


42 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


38.  Injlammatory  Diseases  of  the  Brain.  —  All 
medical  writers  agree  in  regarding  intemperance  as  one 
of  the  conditions  which  tend  to  produce  injlammatory 
diseases  of  the  encephalon,  now  distinguished  as  cere- 
britis  *  and  'meningitis ;  f  and  this  is  precisely  what 
might  be  anticipated,  when  it  is  considered  how  great 
must  be  the  derangement  of  the  circulating  and  nutritive 
operations  occasioned  by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the 
blood.  An  attack  of  acute  encephaUtis  not  unfreciuently 
supervenes  upon  a  debauch,  which  is  then  regarded  as  its 
exciting  cause. |  But  it  may  occur  quite  independently 
of  any  special  act  of  excess,  in  consequence  of  the  predis- 
position ai-ising  from  the  perversion  of  tlie  normal 
functions,  by  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  li(|Uors  in 
quantities  that  may  never  produce  actual  intoxication. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  this  is  the  more  common  occuiTcnce. 
We  have  seen  that  the  state  of  excitement  first  produced 
in  most  persons  by  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  would  pass 
into  meningitis  (or  rather  inflammation  of  the  convohi' 
tions),  if  it  were  not  to  subside  with  the  eliminntion  of 
the  alcohol  from  the  blood.  On  the  other  liand,  the 
•state  of  torpor  of  the  mental  functions  wliieh  alcohol  pro- 
duces from  the  first  in  some  individuals,  and  which  comes 
on  in  sill  if  the  intoxication  be  carried  far  enoudi,  is 
indicative  of  that  congestion  of  the  substance  of  the  brain 
which,  if  confirmed,  and  accompanied  hy  a  cei-tain  dis- 
turbance of  the  nutritive  operations,  would  ])ecoi»ie  cere- 
bi'itis.     There  can  be  no  hesitation,  therefore,  in  admit- 

*  Cerebritis,  inflammation  of  the  brain. 
t  Meningitis,  inflammation  of  the  membranos  of  the  brain. 
%  See,  for  example,  a  fatal  case  related  by  Dr.  Percy,  op.  cif. 
p.  64.  —  AuTHoii. 


ON   THE    HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


48 


ting  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  in  cases  in  which  it 
is  so  obviously  established  by  the  sequence  of  the  pheno- 
mena. 

39.  There  is  another  class  of  diseases  of  the  brain, 
which  are  usually  dependent  upon  structural  changes 
that  require  a  longer  period  for  their  development,  yet 
whose  frequent  connection  with  habitual  intemperance  is 
established  both  by  theory  and  observation.  These  are 
apoplexy,  paralysis,  and  epilepsy. 

40.  Apoplexy.  —  The  state  of  profound  coma,  cha- 
racteristic of  the  advanced  stage  of  intoxication,  may  be 
considered  to  be  identical  with  that  of  congestive  apo- 
plexy, in  every  respect  save  the  nature  of  its  cause,  and 
its  duration.*  A  certain  degree  of  tendency  to  apoplexy 
may  be  said  to  exist  in  the  slighter  form  of  intoxication ; 
the  vessels  of  the  brain  being  congested,  as  a  consequence 
of  increased  action  of  the  heart,  and  of  obstruction  to  the 
encephalic  circulation,  such  as  is  occasioned  by  imperfect 
discharge  of  the  functions  of  the  brain ;  and  tliis  obstruc- 
tion being  also  favored  by  that  partial  stagnation  of  blood 
in  the  lungs  which  takes  place  whenever  the  respiratory 
movements  are  interfered  with.  This  apoplectic  tendency 
seems  to  render  the  intoxicated  man  peculiarly  liable  to 
suffer  from  causes  wliich  would  not  otherwise  produce 
rupture  of  the  vessels  :  thus,  there  are  numerous  in- 
stances on  record  in  which  blows  received  in  pugilistic 
encounters,  or  other  comparatively  slight  injuries,  have 


i 


ctt. 


*  Although,  as  we  have  already  seen  ({  14),  the  phenomena 
are  so  nearly  identical,  the  difference  in  the  etiology  involves  an 
important  difference  in  the  treatment ;  the  comatose  drunkard  not 
requiring  nor  bearing  the  free  depiction  that  is  proper  in  a  case  of 
true  congestive  apoplexy.  —  Author. 


44 


EFFECTS  OF   ALCOHOL 


occasioned  fatal  hemorrhage  within  the  cranium ;  *  the 
sufferer  having  been  previously  dosed  with  spirits  in  such 
quantity  as  oi  itself  to  produce  a  state  of  congestion  bor- 
dering on  apoplexy.  And  it  occasionally  happens,  though 
this  is  comparatively  rare,  that  cerebral  hemorrhage  oc- 
curs without  any  external  violence,  after  an  excessive 
indulgence  in  spirituous  potations. 

41.  But  the  influence  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  the  cau- 
sation of  apoplexy  is  usually  of  a  mi^  jli  more  gradual 
nature.  A  large  proportion  of  the  cases  of  apoplexy 
occurring  in  plethoric  subjects,  and  not  connected  with 
disease  of  the  heart  or  softening  of  the  arterial  coats,  are 
traceable  to  intemperance  in  eating  as  well  as  in  drink- 
ing ;  the  latter,  however,  being  the  chief  cause,  inasmuch 
as,  without  the  habitual  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
continual  excess  in  eating  would  generally  soon  correct 
itself.  Hence,  we  find  that  such  cases  are  rather  apt  to 
occur  among  those  who  take  considerable  quantities  of  wine 
or  malt-liquor  with  full  meals  of  sohd  food,  than  among 
the  drinkers  of  spirits,  who  are  seldom  great  eaters.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  see  the  reason  of  this.  For,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  habit  of  excess  in  eating  and  drinking  has  a 
tendency  to  produce  that  condition  of  plethora  f  wliich 
is  most  peculiarly  prone  to  favor  hemorrhagic  effusions ; 
whilst,  on  the  other,  the  ingestion  of  a  large  quantity  of 
solid  food,  by  causing  pressure  on  the  vessels  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  %  and  by  impeding  the  descent  of  the 
diaphragm,  ||  tends  to  force  an  unusual  quantity  of  blood 

*  Homorrhage,  bleeding ;  cranium,  skull. 

t  Plethora,  full  habit. 

%  Abdominal  viscera,  the  bowels  and  digestive  organs. 

II  Diajihragm,  dividing  screen  between  the  chest  and  the  bowels. 


1*1 


ox  THE   HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


45 


into  the  cncepliulic  vchhcIh,  a«  well  as  to  obstruct  its 
return  from  tliern.  Such  an  ha)»itual  derangement  of 
the  circuliition  may  well  be  supposed  to  occasion  a  pro- 
gressive weakening  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain ;  and  in 
this  manner  it  hap|KniM,  that,  after  a  persistence  for  months 
or  years  in  this  course,  ajK»plexy  may  supervene,  and  be 
its  legitimate  constMjuerice,  without  the  attack  being  trace- 
able to  any  exti-aordinary  indulgence.* 

42.  Of  the  strength  of  the  general  opinion  of  the  medi- 
cal profession  as  to  the  tendency  of  alcoholic  stimulants 
to  produce  the  sthenic  form  f  of  apoplexy,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  give  a  stronger  prcwf  than  the  rigidity  of  the  rule 
of  abstinence  which  is  laid  down  for  those  in  whom  a 
disposition  to  it  luis  alrca/ly  manifestc  \  itself.  Now,  if 
it  be  necessary  to  lay  down  such  rules  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  the  disciwe,  is  it  not  most  obvious  that  we 
are  justified  in  attributing  to  an  habitual  violation  of 
them  its  first  occurrence  'I  And  if  habitual  excess  be  so 
obviously  a  prc<Us[»OHing  cause,  can  we  reasonably  deny 
that  the  long-continued  even  "moderate"  use  of  stimu- 
lants is  likely  to  exert  a  slow,  but,  in  the  end,  a  decided 
influence  'I  It  is  surely  in  vain  here  to  reply,  that,  as 
food  is  wholesome  in  moderation,  but  is  hurtful  in  ex- 
cess, so  may  alcohol  Ik?  also ;  for  alcohol  (as  will  be  more 
fully  shown  hereaft<jr)  can  never  properly  act  as  food, 
save  when  other  ulimcntary  matters  are  deficient;  and, 


*  There  in  ovldonco  that  habitually  excessive  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  has  a  tendency  to  produce  hemorrhages  eheiohcre,  probably 
by  dimininhiuf;  the  plasticity  of  the  blood,  and  by  impairing  the 
nutrition  of  the  walli  of  the  blood-vessels.  —  (See  \\  52  and  68.) 
—  Author. 

t  Sthenic  form,  attended  with  strength,  and  not  debility. 


46 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


even  in  the  smallest  and  most  diluted  doses,  alcohol  ex- 
erts an  influence  on  the  vital  properties  of  the  tissues 
with  which  it  is  brought  into  contact,  that  is  never  mani- 
fested by  proper  alimentary  matters. 

43.  Paralysis  and  Epilepsy.  —  As  the  conditions 
upon  which  the  cerebral  forms  of  paralysis  depend  are 
so  nearly  ths  same  with  those  which  induce  apoplexy,  we 
cannot  doubt  that  the  continual  intemperate  use  of  alco- 
hohc  liquora  must  predispose  to  this  disease,  especially 
when  it  accompanies  intemperance  in  eating ;  and  should 
expect,  too,  that  an  attack  of  it  may  sometimes  be  traced 
to  some  particular  excess,  as  its  exciting  cause.     All 
medical  writers  accord  in  stating  that  such  is  the  result 
of  actual  observation;  and  here,  again,  we  find  in  the 
rules  of  treatment  laid  down,  an  additional  evidence  of 
the  general  conviction  of  the  tendency  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
even  in  small  quantities,  to  induce  a  recurrence  of  para/- 
lytic  attacks.     The  writer  has  had  opportunities  of  no- 
ticing this  in  the  case  of  two  gentlemen  advanced  in  life, 
each  of  whom  suflfered  from  repeated  attacks  of  paralysis, 
which  almost  invariably  supervened  upon  a  violation  of 
the  habitual  rule  of  abstinence  from  fermented  liquor:, 
and  of  extreme  moderation  in  diet.     Precisely  the  same, 
too,  may  be  said  of  epilepsy,  which  disease  is  now  gener- 
ally attributed  to  a  disordered  state  of  imtriiion  of  the 
brain,  of  which  the  paroxysm  is  the  manifestation.     Of 
this  disordered  state  of  nutrition,  intemperance  in  eating 
and  drinking  is  among  the  most  frequent  of  the  predis- 
posing causes,  especially  when  the  disease  occurs  in  per- 
sons advanced  in  life ;  whilst,  in  those  who  are  already 
predisposed  from  these  or  other  causes,  the  excessive  use 
of  fermented  liquors  is  frequently  the  immediate  or  ex- 
citing cause  of  the  paroxysm. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


47 


no- 


44.  Besides  these  positive  diseases,  a  premature  ex- 
haustion of  nervous  power,  manifested  in  the  decline  of 
mental  vigor  and  of  nervo-muscular  enei'gy,  is  ranked  by 
common  consent  among  the  consequences  of  habitual  ex- 
cess in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liijuors ;  and  reasons  will  be 
given  hereafter  for  the  belief  that  it  is  occasionally  the 
direct,  but  more  frequently  the  indirect,  consecjuence  of 
the  habitual  employment  of  what  is  considered  a  very 
moderate  allowance.  —  (See  •$»'§'  177,  178.) 

45.'  In  regard  to  all  the  forms  of  encephalic  disorder 
which  result  from  the  long-continued  action  of  causes 
that  impair  its  nutrition,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  hquors  has  —  in  addition  to  its 
direct  action  upon  the  functions  of  circulation  and  nutri- 
tion —  an  important  indirect  agency ;  inasmuch  as,  by 
the  temporary  support  it  affords,  it  sustains  the  nervous 
apparatus  under  a  degree  of  exertion  that  is  in  the  end 
most  injurious  to  it,  and  renders  the  whole  system  more 
tolerant  of  morbific  causes  of  various  kinds ;  the  mani- 
festation of  whose  action,  however,  is  only  postponed, 
and  becomes  more  severe  in  the  end,  in  proportion  to  the 
duration  of  the  agency.  This  indirect  operation  of  alco- 
holic liquors,  however,  will  be  more  fitly  considered  at  a 
future  period.  —  (§  198.) 

Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Canal. 

46.  The  disorders  of  the  nervous  system,  whose  symp- 
toms are  among  the  most  obvious  and  characteristic 
results  of  alcoholic  intoxication,  having  been  now  con- 
sidered, we  proceed  to  examine  the  influence  of  alcoholic 
liquors  on  the  production  of  diseases  of  the  digestive 
apparatus.    This  influence  is  exerted  in  two  ways :  first, 


1 


( 


48 


EFFECTH  OP  ALCOHOL 


by  the  direct  in'itutliig  fiction  of  tlie  fluid  upon  the  mu- 
cous lining  *  of  the  uhinentury  canal ;  f  and,  second,  by 
the  general  deterioration  of  the  nutritive  processes,  result- 
ing in  various  ways  from  the  entrance  of  alcohol  into  the, 
blood. 

47.  Irritation  and  Jnjlammation  of  the  Mucous 
Membraud  of  the  Stomach.  —  That  irritation  would  be 
produced  in  thu  very  vascular  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach  by  the  direct  contiujt  of  alcoholic  liquors,  and 
that  this  would  vary  in  its  intensity  with  the  amount, 
concentration,  and  duration  of  the  application  of  the  irri- 
tant, is  precisely  what  wo  should  anticipate  from  what 
has  been  already  shown  by  oljscrvation  to  be  the  result 
of  the  application  of  alcohol  to  a  living  membrane.  A 
small  quantity  of  alcoholic  li(juor,  dilutee!  by  the  fliuids 
already  in  the  stomach,  apfKjars  to  produce  only  the  first 
effect,  namely,  a  quickening  of  the  circulation,  and  a 
temporary  exaltation  of  the  functional  activity  of  the 
organ,  as  shown  in  the  increase  of  ajipetite  and  of  diges- 
tive power.  But,  when  a  larger  (quantity  is  introduced, 
and  especially  when  successive  doses  are  taken  so  as  to 
keep  up  the  irritation,  or  when  the  alcohol  is  in  a  state 
of  high  concentration,  and  tlie  stomjvch  contains  but  little 
other  fluid,  all  the  effects  of  an  iri'itant  are  produced, 
varying  from  moderate  congestion  %  with  diminished 
functional  activity,  to  intense  congestion  passing  into  in- 
flammation, and  even  to  a  gangrenous  state.  The  more 
severe  effects,  however,  are  not  often  seen;  in  conse- 


*  Mucous  lining,  tho  innor  cofit. 

t  Alimentary  canal,  tho  whole  channel  through  which  the  food 
passes. 

X  Congestion,  too  great  fulnoM. 


'■=11 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   .SYSTEM. 


40 


and 


quence,  it  may  be  surmised,  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  alcohol  has  been  absorbed  (^  18),  and  the  brcnty 
of  the  duration  of  its  contact  with  the  membrane,  shielded 
as  this  is  with  its  coat  of  mucus.  Hence,  a  repetition  of 
the  dose  seems  more  likely  to  produce  a  state  of  high 
irritation,  or  of  inflammation,  than  any  single  dose,  un- 
less this  have  been  too  great  to  be  quickly  absorl  "d. 

48.  The  morbid  appearances  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
men  or  animals  killed  by  narcotic  *  poisonin''.  and  attri- 
butable at  first  sight  to  the  direct  influence  of  tlic  in'itant, 
can  seldom  be  fairly  regarded  in  that  light ;  since  they 
are  for  the  most  part  Huch  as  are  producible  by  the 
asphyxia  which  has  been  the  immediate  cause  of  death. 
When  we  find  general  injection  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
local  patches  of  extreme  congestion,  numerous  minute 
extravasations,  f  or  hemorrhagic  |  patches  of  large  extent, 
these  are  more  likely  to  have  been  the  result  of  the 
stagnation  of  the  pulmonary  circulation,  acting  back- 
wards upon  the  whole  venous  system,  than  to  have  been 
the  immediate  result  of  the  contact  of  alcohol;  since 
appearances  precisely  similar  are  found  when  death  has^ 
taken  place  from  suffocation  in  other  modes,  e.  g*.  in 
criminals  executed  by  hanging.  In  the  case  of  animate 
poisoned  by  alcohol,  it  frequently  happens  that  scarcely 
any  positively  morbid  appearances  are  discernible  in  the 
stomach ;  and  the  departures  from  the  healthy  character, 
which  are  noticed  in  the  btomach  of  the  human  subject 
after  death  from  alcoholic  poisoning,  are  most  frequently 
such  as  indicate  an  altered  state  of  its  nutrition,  con- 

*  Narcotic,  sleep-producing. 

t  Extravasation,  escape  of  fluid  from  its  vesaola.. 

X  Hemorrhagic,  marked  with  blood. 


50 


EFFECTS  OF   ALCOHOL 


sequent  upon  habitual  irritjition.  Of  these  departires,  a 
thickened  state  of  the  mucous  membrane  seems  to  Ik;  the 
most  constant ;  the  membrane  being  sometimes  soitened 
(as  stated  Ijj  Dr.  Ogston) ;  sometimes  unusually  firm,' 
corrugated,  and  pale  (as  observed  by  Dr.  I^etei-s).  These 
last  appearances  seem  to  have  been  most  common,  when 
a  quantity  of  undiluted  spirits  had  been  taken  shortly 
before  death,  and  to  have  resulted  from  that  physical 
action  exerted  by  them  upon  the  membrane,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  ('§>'§•  2,  3).  It  some- 
times happens,  however,  that,  after  the  narcotic  effects 
of  the  alcohol  have  passed  off,  another  set  of  symptoms 
appears,  indicative  of  inflammation  of  the  alimentary 
canal;  and,  if  these  proceed  to  a  fatal  termination  (as 
now  and  then  occurs),  the  usual  appearances  indicative 
of  that  state  are  found  in  the  gastro-intestinal  *  mucous 
membrane.  In  one  example  of  this  kind,  cited  by  Dr. 
Christison,  the  whole  villous  coat  of  the  stomach  was  in 
a  gangrenous  state,  the  colon  was  much  inflamed,  and 
the  small  intestines  red  along  their  whole  length. 

49.  Our  best  information  as  to  the  effect  of  alcoholic 
liquors  upon  the  condition  of  the  gastric  mucous  mem- 
brane during  life,  is  derived  from  the  well-known  ob- 
servations of  Dr.  Beaumont  in  the  case  of  Alexis  St. 
Martin.  This  man  appears  to  have  been  habitually 
temperate  and  healthy;  but  to  have  occasionally  in- 
dulged in  excess  both  in  eating  and  drinking,  the  results 
of  which  could  be  seen  by  direct  observation  through  the 
fistulous  opening  in  the  parietes  of  his  stomach.  Thus, 
says  Dr.  Beaumont,  under  the  date  July  28th,  1833, 


*  Gastro-intestinal,  &c.  inner  lining  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 


ON   THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


61 


"  Stomach  not  healthy,  some  erythema,  *  and  aphthous  f 
patclies  on  the  mucous  surface.  St.  Martin  has  been 
(h'inking  ardent  spirits  pretty  freely,  for  eight  or  ten 
"days  past;  complains  of  no  pain,  nor  shows  symptoms 
of  general  inihsi)osition ;  says  he  feels  well,  and  has  a 
good  apj)etite.  August  1st.  Inner  membrane  of  the 
stomach  morbid ;  considerable  (irythema,  and  some  aph- 
thous patches  on  the  exposed  surfjice ;  secretions  vitiated. 
August  3d.  Inner  membrane  of  Btomach  uimsually 
morbid ;  the  erythematous  appcjirance  more  extensive, 
and  spots  more  livid  than  usual,  from  the  surface  of 
which  exuded  small  drops  of  grumousj  blood;  the 
aphthous  patches  larger  and  more  numerous ;  the  mu- 
cous covering  thicker  than  common,  and  the  secretions 
much  more  vitiated.  The  gastric  fluids  extracted  tliis 
morning  were  mixed  with  a  large  proportion  o^  thick, 
ropy  mucus,  and  considerable  muco-purulent  ||  matter, 
shghtly  tinged  with  blood,  resembling  the  discharge  from 
the  bowels  in  some  cases  of  chronic  dysentery."  Now, 
it  is  very  important  to  remark,  that  all  this  disorder  was 
proved  by  direct  observation  to  be  actually  existing  in 
the  mucous  coat  of  the  stomach,  without  any  such  mani- 
festation of  it  by  general  or  local  symptoms  as  would  by 
themselves  have  been  thought  indicative  of  its  presence. 
"  For,"  continues  Dr.  Beaumont,  "  St.  Martin  com- 
plains of  no  symptoms  indicating  any  general  derange- 
ment of  the  system,  except  an  uneasy  sensation,  and  a 
tenderness  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  some  vertigo, 


♦  Erythema,  inflammation. 

t  Aphthous,  studded  with  minute  ulcers. 

%   Grumous,  clotted,  thick. 

II   Mxico-ptirulent,  diseased  matter. 


52 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


with  dimness  and  yellowness  of  vision  on  stooping  down 
and  rising  again;  has  a  thin,  yellowish-brown  coat  on 
his  tongue,  and  his  countenance  rather  sallow;  pulse 
uniform  and  regular,  appetite  good,  rests  quietly,  and' 
sleeps  as  well  as  usual."  By  the  6th  of  August,  the 
inner  surface  of  the  stomach  had  recovered  its  healthy 
appearance  ;•  the  patient  having  in  the  meantime  entirely 
abstained  from  all  alcoholic  liquors,  and  ha^^ng  been  con- 
fined to  low  diet.  Dr.  Beaumont  further  states,  that 
"diseased  appearances,  similar  to  those  mentioned  above, 
have  frequently  presented  themselves  in  the  coui-se  of  my 
experiments  and  observations.  They  have  generally,  but 
not  always,  succeeded  to  some  appreciable  cause.  Impro- 
per indulgence  in  eating  and  di'inking  has  been  the  most 
common  precursor  of  these  diseased  conditions  of  the 
stomach.  The  free  use  of  ardent  spirits,  ivine,  beer,  or 
any  intoxicating  liquor,  ivhen  continued  for  some  days, 
has  invariably  produced  these  morbid  changes. '''' 

50.  From  the  precise  concurrence  of  these  observa- 
tions with  what  theory  would  lead  us  to  expect  in  regard 
to  the  action  of  alcoholic  liquors  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  stomach,  it  is  obvious  that  we  have  no  right 
to  suppose  that  the  peculiar  condition  of  St.  Martin  gave 
him  any  peculiar  hability  to  suffer  in  the  manner  above 
described.  On  the  contrary,  such  disorders  of  the  circu- 
lation, nutrition,  and  secretion,  might  be  anticipated  to 
occur  in  every  case ;  and  it  is  only  because  they  are  not 
immediately  indicated  by  pain  and  heat  in  the  stomach, 
by  loss  of  appetite,  or  by  general  febrile  disturbance, 
that  they  are  presumed  not  to  exist.  This  presumption, 
however,  has  been  shown  to  be  altogether  fallacious  ;  and 
we  have  adequate  reason  to  believe,  that  some  sucli  con- 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


58 


dition  must  be  tlic  result  of  every  excess  in  the  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors,  however  little  it  may  be  indicated  by 
the  local  or  general  symptoms. 

51.  hijlammatory  Gastric  Dyspepsia.  —  It  might 
be  anticipated,  then,  that  habitual  excess  would  convert 
this  state  of  occasional  and  transient  disorder,  which  only 
requires  rest  and  abstinence  for  its  cure,  into  one  of  a 
more  persistent  and  obstinate  character ;  which,  by  unfit- 
ting the  stomach  for  the  discharge  of  its  normal  functions, 
would  seriously  impair  the  general  nutritive  operations. 
Such  has  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  the  case ;  a 
special  form  of  dyspeptic  disorder,  termed  injlammatory 
g-astric  dyspepsia,  being  well  known  to  practical  men  as 
common  among  those  who  have  freely  indulged  in  alco- 
hohc  potations.  Of  this  disorder,  the  follovring  are  the 
symptoms,  as  enumerated  by  Dr.  Todd  :  *  "  Painful 
digestion,,  sense  of  heat,  tenderness,  or  pain  at  the  epi- 
gastrium,! increased  upon  taking  food,  or  on  pressure ; 
thirst ;  tongue  more  or  less  of  a  bright  red  color,  some- 
times brownish  red,  sometimes  dry,  glossy,  and  adhe- 
sive ;  taste  saltish  or  alkaline,  occasionally  like  that  of 
blood;  bowels  generally  confined;  urine  high-colored; 
skin  dry,  with  occasionally  profuse,  partial  sweats,  chiefly 
in  the  direction  of  the  extensor  muscles ;  temperature  of 
the  trunk  increased,  of  the  extremities  diminished,  except 
occasionally  in  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the 
feet,  which,  especially  at  night,  are  frequently  hot,  dry, 
and  burning:  aggravation  of  the  symptoms  under  the 
use  of  stimulants  or  of  irritating  ingesta.  t. "     The  vari- 

*  Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Medicine,  Art.  IiuUgestion, 
t  Epi(jastriumy  region  of  the  stomach. 
t  Ingesta,  -whatever  is  taken  into  the  stomach. 
6* 


11 


54 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


:^ 


ous  stages  and  degrees  of  the  disease  are  cliaracterized 
by  various  modifications  of  these  symptoms,  many  of 
them  the  consequences  of  the  disturbance  of  the  nutritive 
functions  produced  by  the  disorder  of  the  stomach ;  but 
of  all  such  consequences  it  may  be  remarked,  that  they 
are  probably  aggravated  by  the  previous  disturbance  of 
the  nutritive  and  secretory  operations  consequent  upon 
the  habitual  introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  blood.  Thus 
we  find  a  special  tendency  to  cutaneous  eruptions,  such 
as  erysipelas,  lichen,  erythema,  urticaria,  psoriasis,  and 
pityriasis ;  to  sluggish  and  imperfect  action  of  the  liver ; 
to  scantiness  in  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys;  and  to 
depression  of  spirits,  with  inability  for  active  mental  ex- 
ertion, passing  on,  in  the  more  confirmed  states,  to  com- 
plete hypochondriasis.  Although  excess  in  eating  may 
aid  in  the  production  of  this  wretched  condition,  jct,  as 
Dr.  Todd  remarks,  it  is  rather  due  to  the  stimulating 
quality  of  what  is  taken  into  the  stomach,  than  to  its 
quantity;  and  although  it  may  occasionally  arise  from 
the  habitual  use  of  highly  seasoned  food  without  the 
proper  dilution  by  bland  liquids,  yet  it  is  much  more 
frequently  brought  on  by  indulgence  in  alcoholic  pota- 
tions; "it  is  the  dyspepsia  of  the  dram-drinker  and 
opium-eater,  and  belongs  altogether  more  to  the  drunkard 
than  to  the  glutton."  In  the  treatment  of  this  disease, 
the  complete  disuse  of  stimulants  is  found  to  be  of  the 
greatest  importance;  notwithstanding  that,  in  the  more 
chronic  forms  of  it,  a  temporary  alleviation  is  sometimes 
obtained  from  small  quantities  of  alcoholic  licjuors. 


*  Soo  the  observations  of  Sir  Philip  Crampton  on  this  subject, 
in  Dublin  Hospital  Reports,  vol.  i.  p.  349. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


55 


52.  Disorders  of  the  Intestinal  Mucous  Membrane. 
—  The  disordered  state  of  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous 
membrane  *  is  not  limited,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  sto- 
mach, and  it  may  extend  itself  along  the  whole  coui-se  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  to  parts  with  which  the  alc()h<jlic 
liquors  themselves  have  not  come  in  contact :  so  as  to  be 
attributalilc  rather  to  the  general  imperfection  of  the  nu- 
tritive operations,  than  to  the  local  effects  of  the  stimulant. 
Thus  we  find  that  habitually  intemperate  persons  are  sub- 
ject to  soreness,  redness,  and  ulceration  of  the  membrane 
of  the  nose,  and  of  that  of  the  lower  part  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal ;  and  hemorrhages  from  various  parts  of  this 
memlirane,  as  well  as  from  the  mouth  itself,  arc  of  no 
unfrequent  oeciirrence,  —  the  escape  of  blood  being  obvi- 
ously dependent  in  part  on  its  own  insufficient  plasticity, f 
and  in  part  upon  the  softened  condition  of  the  walls  of  the 
vessels.  It  is  important  to  bear  this  in  mind,  as  increas- 
ing the  probability  of  the  same  cause  being  concerned  in 
the  production  of  a  similar  softening  elsewhere;  as,  for 
example,  in  the  vessels  of  the  brain.  —  (See  v>  41.) 

53.  Where,  in  place  of  excessive  indulgence,  v.hai  is 
commonly  considered  a  moderate  use  has  beci  raxiio  of 
alcoholic  licpiors,  we  caimot,  with  the  same  confidence, 
attribute  to  it  any  decided  departure  froi.i  the  healiij/ 
condition  of  the  stomach ;  and  it  is  cert-nn  that  the  mu- 
cous mem1)rano  becomes  in  time  so  habituated  to  its  pre- 
sence, that  its  contact  no  longer  produces  the  same  effects 
as  it  does  on  a  membrane  unaccustomed  to  it.  But  we 
shall  hereafter  (§  160 — 162)  find  reason  to  believe,  thai; 

*  Gasf.ro- intrsfinal  mucous  membrane,  the  inner  coat  of  the  sto- 
mach, bowels,  &c. 

t  Plasticity,  adhesiveness. 


56 


EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL 


ill 


such  habitual  use  is  not  without  itH  consequences,  al- 
though these  may  be  very  remote ;  the  continual  over- 
excitement  of  the  vital  activity  of  the  gjwtric  mucous 
membrane  being  probably  one  of  the  causes  of  tliat  pre- 
mature loss  of  functional  power  which  is  observable  in  a 
great  number  of  those  who  have  accustomed  themselves 
to  the  use  of  alcohohc  liquors.  This  cause,  however, 
will  seldom  act  alone ;  being  usually  combined  Avith  ex- 
cess in  diet,  and  with  "wear  and  tear"  of  the  general 
system,  as  will  be  shown  in  its  proper  place ;  so  that  its 
operation  is  very  liable  to  be  overlooked. 

Diseases  of  the  Liver. 

54.  That  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
must  have  a  direct  tendency  to  produce;  certain  diseases 
of  the  liver,  will  be  questioned  by  no  one  who  considers 
their  mode  of  introduction  into  the  system,  and  their 
influence  on  the  condition  of  the  blood.  The  blood  which 
returns  from  the  gastric  veins  charged  with  alcohol  is 
immediately  transmitted  through  the  liver :  nnd  it  stimu- 
lates this  gland  for  a  time  to  increased  activity,  one  effect 
of  which  is  to  eliminate  a  portion  of  the  alcoliol  from  the 
blood,  —  this  substance,  according  to  Dr.  Pei'cy's  obser- 
vations, being  detectible  in  the  bile  of  anlirjuls  poisoned 
by  alcohol.  Hence,  the  liver,  like  the  stomach,  is  sub- 
ject to  habitual  over-stimulation  from  tlie  direct  contact 
of  alcohol  with  its  substance.  But  we  have  seen  tliat  the 
presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood  prevents  It  from  ac(|uiring 
its  proper  arterial  character  by  passages  througli  the  lungs ; 
and  we  shall  hereafter  find  that  it  causes  the  undue  re- 
tention in  it  of  hydro-carbonaceous  matt<!rs,  Avliicli  ought 
to  be  removed  by  the  respiratory  process.      Hence  an 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


57 


undue  amount  of  labor  is  thrown  upon  the  liver,  —  one 
of  the  functions  of  this  gland  being  to  separate  from  the 
blood  such  hjdro-carbonaceous  matters  as  are  not  carried 
off  by  the  respiratory  organs ;  and  this  continual  over- 
work must  predispose  it  to  various  disorders. 

55.  Acute  and  Chronic  InJlammaUon  of  the  Liver. 
—  In  tropical  climates,  acute  inflammatory  diseases  of 
the  liver  are  among  the  most  common  of  these  disorders ; 
and  thoy  are  distinctly  traceable,  in  a  large  proportion  of 
cases,  to  that  excess,  both  in  eating  and  drinking,  to 
which  Europeans  are  unfortunately  but  too  prone ;  being 
rare  among  the  natives,  and  almost  equally  rare  among 
the  Europeans  who  adopt  the  native  manner  of  living. 
In  this  country,  such  acute  diseases  are  comparatively 
rare ;  but  there  are  certain  remote  consequences  w^hich 
are  no  less  clearly  traceable  to  chronic  inflammation 
and  degeneration,  resulting  from  the  excessive  use  of 
fermented  lic^uors,  especially  when  these  arc  taken  in  the 
form  of  distilled  spirits.  The  following  is  the  account  of 
the  state  of  the  hver  given  by  Dr.  Peters  {loc.  cit,),  as 
presented  in  the  seventy  cases  which  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  examining :  "In  *  moderate  drinkers,'  the  liver 
was  geneiaiiy  found  to  be  somewhat  larger  than  usual, 
its  texture  softened,  and  its  outer  surface  spotted,  with 
patches  of  fatty  infiltration  extending  two  or  three  lines 
into  the  parenchymatous*  substance;  the  rest  of  the 
viscus  retaining  its  natural  color,  ard  its  edges  their  nor- 
mal sharpness.  In  those  who  had  been  more  addicted  to 
the  use  of  spirits,  the  hver  was  still  larger,  its  edges 
were  more  obtuse,  and  the  patches  of  fat  on  its  surface 


*  rarencJiymatous,  glandular  tissue. 


58 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


were  larger  and  more  numerous.  In  old  drunkards  the 
liver  was  very  large,  weighing  at  least  six  or  eight  pounds, 
often  from  ten  to  twelve ;  the  edges  were  very  thick  and 
much  rounded ;  the  parenchyma  almost  white  with  fat, 
soft,  fragile,  and  the  peritoneal  covering  could  be  torn  oflF 
with  ease."  It  is  evident  that  in  all  these  cases  the  Tver 
was  the  subject  of  various  degrees  oi  falty  degeneration. 
which  takes  place,  on  the  one  hand,  as  the  result  of 
<leficient  functional  activity  of  the  gland ;  whilst,  on  the 
other,  it  is  indicative  of  an  excess  of  fatty  matter  in 
the  system. 

56.  The  peculiar  conditions  of  the  liver  known  as  '•'  gra- 
nular liver,"  and  "  hob-nailed  Hver,"  or  "  gin  liver," 
^^  ere  comparatively  rare  in  Dr.  Peters' s  experience,  being 
observed  only  in  four  or  five  cases ;  but  they  seem  to  be 
much  more  common  in  tliis  country;  and  its  greater 
prevalence  may  possibly  be  due  to  a  difference  in  the 
character  of  the  spirit  usually  employed  by  drinkers 
among  the  lower  classes,  gin  being  here  the  most  com- 
mon, rum  and  brandy  in  the  United  States.  These 
conditions  appear  to  be  dependent  upon  atrophy  of  the 
proper  hepatic  substance,  with  hypertrophy  of  the  con- 
necting areolar  tissue :  the  former  being  apparently  the 
resiilt  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  functional  power  of  the 
liver  by  over-excitement;  and  the  latter  to  continual 
attacks  of  chronic  inflamiTifition,  which  produce  the  false 
membranes,  adhesiour.^  puckerings,  £:c.  that  give  rise  to 
the  second  of  the  d-  -'.gnations  just  cited.  Between  the 
state  of  contraction  (in  which  the  liver  is  frequently  not 
more  than  half  its  usual  size),  and  the  state  of  enlarge- 
ment just  described,  there  is  not  that  opposition  Avhicli 
might  at  first  sight  appear;   for  in  both  is  there  dimin- 


ON    rilK   HKALTIIY   SYSTEM. 


rliicli 


ishcd  functional  arul  nutntivc  activity  of  the  proper  sub- 
stsmce  o(  the  gland ;  and  the  »tatc  of  enlargement,  which 
is  simply  dejKjndent  uiK)n  the  accumulation  of  fatty  mat- 
ter, not  unfVe<ju<'ntly  givc^  place  to  one  of  contraction. 
In  fact,  it  wouM  not  Hcetii  improbahle  that  each  state 
may  have  a  relation  to  the  general  disposition  to  the  de- 
velopment of  fat  in  the  individual :  for,  v  hilst  in  many 
habitual  di'unkardw  i\unv  is  a  great  tendency  to   the 
production  of  fat,  atid  to  its  def)Osition  in  various  parts^^  of 
the  body  (»$<  01),  there  is  an  cjual  tendency  in  othei.i 
to  a  leanness  which  no  fattening  pi-ocess  will  overcome. 
Certain  it  is,  however,  that  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  lias  a  ttTid<;ncy  first  to  excite  and  then  to  diminish 
the  functional  jictivity  of  the  liver:  and  thus  predisposes 
in  the  first  instance  to  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  organ, 
whilst  Its  more  remot<!  operation  is  to  induce  atrophy  or 
degeneration.    This  will  Ikj  especially  the  case  in  tropical 
climates,  where  sevc^ral  causes  concur  (as  will  be  shown 
hereafter)  to  augment  the  injurious  influence  of  alcohol 
upon  the  liver,  and  conse<jucntly  to  incresise  the  amount 
and  severity  of  the  distsises  of  that  organ  induced  by  its 
habitual  use,     <  H'  (;r)urse,  every  disturbance  of  the  func- 
tion of  the  liver  n»ust  Ikj  an  a<lditional  source  of  disorder 
in  the  digestive  ojM;rations,  in  which  the  action  of  this 
gland  has  so  imiHjrtaiit  a  shaj'e. 

Duramen  of  the  Kidneys. 

57,  We  have  se(;i:  that  a  special  determination  of 
blood  to  the  kidmjys  tsikes  place  as  one  of  the  results 
of  the  reception  of  ah^jholic  liquors  into  the  blood ;  and 
these  organs  are  thereby  excited  to  augmented  action, 
one  of  the  purjHmeH  of  which  would  seem  to  be  the  re- 


60 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


moval  of  the  alcohol  from  the  current  of  the  circulation. 
As  the  blood  of  the  kidneys  is  derived  from  the  arterial 
system,  in  which  the  alcohol  becomes  diluted  by  the 
whole  mass  of  sanguineous  fluid ;  and  as  the  alteration  in 
the  constituents  of  the  blood  which  it  tends  to  produce 
has  less  relation  to  the  function  of  the  kidneys  than  to 
that  of  the  liver,  it  might  be  expected  that  excess  in 
alcoholic  liquors  should  not  have  the  same  tendency  to 
produce  acute  inflammatory  attacks  in  this  organ  as  in 
the  other,  although  it  may  act  as  the  exciting  cause  of 
such  attacks  (as  appears  to  be  frequently  the  ca,  e), 
when  the  predisposition  has  been  established  by  other 
agencies.  But  we  should  expect,  that  the  habitual  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  in  excess  would  have  a  special  tendency 
to  produce  a  state  of  chronic  irritation^  passing  into 
chronic  inflammation,  with  various  consequent  alterations 
in  the  structure,  and  deterioration  in  the  function,  of 
the  kidneys.  Such  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  to 
be  the  usual  origin  of  that  morbid  condition  commonly 
known  a.s  Brighfs  disease^  or  granular  degenera- 
tion of  the  kidneys,  which  is  now  generally  considered 
by  pathologists  as  a  result  of  chronic  inflammation 
and  atrophy  of  the  proper  substance  of  the  kidney,  with 
deposits  of  fatty,  albuminous,  or  other  unorganizable 
matters,  —  a  state,  in  fact,  very  closely  resembling  the 
degenerated  conditions  of  the  liver  already  described. 
Now,  of  this  disease.  Dr.  Christison  states  that  from 
three-fourths  to  four-fifths  of  the  cases  which  he  met 
with  in  Edinburgh  were  in  persons  who  were  habitual 
drunkards,  or  who,  without  deserving  this  appellation, 
M  ere  in  the  constant  habit  of  using  ardent  spirits  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  day;  and  the  experience  of 


ON   THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


61 


English  hospitiil  practice  is  (.so  far  as  the  writer  has 
been  able  to  ascertain)  precisely  similar.  The  tiisensc  is 
verj  rarely  met  with  in  the  i)rivatc  practice  of  those 
■whose  patients  are  of  a  class  not  given  to  excessive  spirit- 
uous potations.  Here,  too,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  une  of 
malt  spirit  (gin  or  whiskey)  gives  a  greater  jtredisposi- 
tion  to  tlie  disease  than  that  of  rum  or  hrandy;  the 
former  liaving  a  more  diuretic  effect  than  the  latti.'r,  that 
is,  producing  a  greater  temjiorary  activity  in  the  kidneys. 
and  having  a  greater  tendency  to  bring  aljout  a  state  of 
chronic  irritation. 

58.  But  we  arc  not  to  suppose,  that,  if  this  severe 
form  of  renal  disease  be  not  developed,  the  kidneys 
escape  altogether  free.  We  should  expect  that  the 
conse([Uonces  of  long-continued  and  habitual  excitement 
would  manifest  themselves  in  subsequent  impairment  of 
functional  power,  even  if  no  obvious  structural  disease  be 
ensjendercd :  and  there  can  be  little  douljt  that  such  is 
the  case,  since  we  find  that  persons  advanced  in  life, 
who  have  habitually  indidgcd  freely,  even  if  not  exces- 
sively, in  alcoholic  li({Uors,  are  extremely  apt  to  suffer 
from  scoci,  7'heumatlsm,  and  other  disorders,  which 
mainly  (k'|:end  upon  the  insufficient  elimination  of  such 
morbid  matters  from  the  blood  as  ought  to  jje  carried 
forth  through  this  channel  (§  GG).  Excesses  in  diet, 
wdiich,  at  an  early  period  of  life,  are  counteracted  ]:)y  the 
activity  of  the  excretory  apparatus,  are  no  longer  thus 
prevented  from  giving  rise  to  an  accumulation  of  morbi- 
fic *  products  in  the  blood,  when  the  kidneys  begin  to 
fail  in  the  performance  of  their  duty ;  and  {dthough  we 


•:  f 


*  Morbific,  proflucing  disease. 


G2 


KFl'ECTH  OF  AU.'oJlOL 


I 


may  not  1)o  able,  wltli  ponitivc  certainty,  to  attribute 
this  failure  to  free  induli^eiiee  In  alcoholic  li(|Uor»,  vet  it 
cannot  be  reaHoimbly  (jU(!Htione<l  tliat  hucIi  habit;-,  must 
tend  to  product.  It,  wince  w<!  find  that  over-excitement  of 
any  organ  is  rej^ularly  followed,  Hooner  or  later,  l)y  de- 
pression of  its  functional  iK)wer,  and  have  seen  that  the 
continual  stimulation  of  th(!  kidney  ))y  alcohol  has  a 
special  tendency  to  prodiu;(!  peiveited  nutrition,  and 
thus  to  render  it  entirely  iiniit  for  the  performance  of 

its  duties. 

Dismscs  of  the  S/du. 

59.  The  detenuination  of  bhxnl  to  the  skin,  which  has 
been  noticed  as  one  of  the  rertultH  of  the  ingestion  of 
alcoholic  li(|Uois,  has  a  tendency,  when  frequently  re- 
peated, to  produce  variouH  diHorders  in  its  nutrition, 
chiefly  those  resulting  IVoni  congestion  or  inflammation 
of  its  several  tisHiics.  Such  disorders  show  themselves 
especially  in  l].c  !«kin  of  the  face ;  and  this  for  two 
reason.5 :  ]»v  cause,  in  the  first  i)lace,  the  face  partakes 
in  the  general  detcrnu  nation  of  ])]<)(A  towards  the  head, 
so  that  it  ])ocomes  more  flushed  than  any  other  part  of 
the  surface ;  and  also  Ijecausc  the  exposure  of  this  part 
of  the  cutaneous  surface  disposes  it  to  be  more  afiected 
than  that  of  the  body  and  limbs  by  external  cold,  which 
will  always  tend,  l)y  lowerin^^  the  vital  activity  of  any 
tissue,  to  increase  the  vs'iU  rcsuiting  from  too  copious  a 
determination  of  blood  towards  it.  Hence  we  find  the 
skin  of  the  face  es[»e(Mally  ilisposed  to  exhibit  those  car- 
buncles, boils,  &c.  wliich  may  be  considered,  in  a  large 
proportion  of  ca.ses,  as  the  dire(;t  result  of  habitual  in- 
temperance; it  is  iUso  the  paj't  in  which  the  erysipelatous 
attacks,  so  common  among  the  intemperate,  most  fre- 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


03 


attribute 
rs,  vet  It 
jits  must 
tement  of 
r,  l)j  de- 
,  tliat  the 
ol  has  a 
tion,  and 
mance  of 


yhich  has 
jcstion  of 
ently  re- 
nutrition, 
ammation 
lemselves 
for  two 
partakes 
the  head, 
r  part  of 
this  part 
3  aflfected 
d,  which 
y  of  any 
opious  a 
find  the 
lose  car- 
a  large 
itual  in- 
ipelatous 
aost  fre- 


(juontly  commence,  wlion  thoy  arc  not  imme(hi»tel y  ex- 
cited by  some  injury  el.newhero;  and  it  is  on  the  face, 
too,  that  we  most  frcipiently  meet  with  various  forms  of 
acne,  of  wliich  the  acne  rosacea  is,  in  a  very  hirge 
proportion  of  cases,  directly  attributable  to  intemperate 
habits.  We  have  alresidy  noticed  other  <liseavses  of  the 
skin  (*§>  51),  which  seem  to  be  rather  .MTjuent  upon 
the  disorder  of  the  digestive  aj)paratii  idu.ed  by  the 
habitual  free  use  of  alcoholic  Tupiors.  due  to  the 

direct  agency  of  the  alcohol  upon  its  tissue.  There  is  a 
disease,  however,  noticed  by  Dr.  Darwin  under  the  name 
of  psora  ebriormn,  A^hich  may  be  attributed  with  great 
probability  to  a  chronic  though  slight  perversion  of  the 
nutritive  operations  of  the  skin,  in  consecpienee  of  the  pre- 
sence of  alcohol  in  the  blood.  Of  this  disease,  Dr.  Dar- 
win says  :  "  Elderly  people  who  have  been  much  a<ldicted 
to  spirituous  drinks,  as  beer,  wine,  or  alcohol,  are  liable 
to  an  eruption  all  over  their  bodies,  which  is  attended 
with  very  afflicting  itching,  and  which  they  probably 
propagate  from  one  part  of  their  bodies  to  another,  with 
their  own  nails,  by  scratching  themselves."  Dr.  Macnish 
states,  that  he  has  himself  seen  many  cases  of  this  dis- 
ease. *  Most  other  cutaneous  f  disorders,  which  are 
less  directly  traceable  to  intemperate  hal)its,  are  greatly 
aggravated  by  them :  so  that  strict  abstinence  from  fer- 
mented liquors  is  an  almost  invariable  rule  in  the  treat- 
ment of  them,  unless  the  use  of  these  in  small  quantities 
should  be  thought  requisite  to  improve  the  state  of  the 
digestive  function. 

*  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  178. 
t  Cutanom,  belonging  to  the  skin. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Sdences 

Corporation 


n  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MSSO 

(716)872-4503 


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u 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


General  Disorders  of  NiUrition. 
60.  Having  thus  considered  the  principal  forms  of 
disease  which  the  intemperate  employment  of  alcoholic 
liquors  has  a  tendency  to  induce  in  the  several  parts  of 
the  excretory  apparatus,  to  which  they  seem  to  give  a 
special  determination,  we  have  now  to  consider  those 
general  chsorders  of  nutrition  which  are  traeerble  to  the 
same  cause,  and  wliich  manifest  themselves  either  as 
substantive  diseases,  as  modifying  the  course  of  other 
diseases,  or  as  giving  a  special  habihty  to  the  action  of 
other  morbific  causes.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the 
deteriorating  effect  of  the  admixture  of  alcohol  with  the 
blood ;  how  it  lowers  the  plasticity  of  the  fibrine,  tends 
to  empty  the  red  corpuscles,  and  in  various  ways  impedes 
the  process  of  aeration ;  and  another  less  direct,  but  not 
less  important,  source  of  deterioration  is  to  be  found  in 
the  imperfect  elimination  *  of  the  constituents  of  the  bile 
and  urine,  which  must  be  the  consequence  of  functional 
inactivity,  still  more  of  structural  degeneration,!  of  the 
liver  and  kidneys.  Hence  it  would  seem  impossible, 
that  by  such  a  pabulum  the  formation  of  the  sohd  tissues 
can  be  normally  sustained ;  and  we  should  expect  to  find, 
that  the  nutritive  processes  are  not  performed  with  the 
same  energy  and  completeness  in  the  habitually  intem- 
perate, that  they  are  in  the  habitually  abstinent.  Not- 
withstanding some  appearances  to  the  contrary,  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  such  is  the  case.  Although  a 
high  degree  of  bodily  vigor  seems  to  be  exhiliited  by 
certain  classes  of  men,  who  consume  large  quantities  of 
fermented  liquors,  yet  this  is  extremely  deceptive,  as  the 


Elimination,  separation. 


t  Degeneration,  diaense. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


65 


facts  to  be  presently  stated  will  clearly  indicate ;  and  the 
general  result  is  evidently  on  the  other  side. 

61.  Tendency  to  the  Deposition  of  Fat.  —  The  im- 
mediate eflFects  of  alcoholic  liquors  upon  the  general 
appearance  of  the  body,  especially  as  regards  the  deposi- 
tion of  fat,  vary  with  their  nature,  and  with  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  are  habitually  used.  Thus  it 
is  generally  to  be  noticed,  that  those  who  indulge  largely 
in  malt  liquors  become  fat,  and  often  exceedingly  corpu- 
lent ;  the  large  consumers  of  wine  commonly  share  the 
same  tendency ;  but  the  spirit-drinker  is  more  commonly 
lean,  and  even  emaciated.  This  difference  may  partly 
depend  upon  the  constitution  of  the  liquors;  thus  ale, 
beer,  &c.  .wntain  a  considerable  amount  of  saccharine 
matter,  which  is  either  consumed  in  respiration,  leaving 
the  fatty  matters  of  the  blood  to  be  deposited  as  fat,  or 
is  itself  converted  into  fat ;  in  wine,  again,  there  is  more 
or  less  of  sohd  matter,  which  furnishes  materials  for 
combustion ;  whilst,  in  distilled  spirits,  there  is  scarcely 
any  thing  save  the  alcohol.  But  it  also  depends  in  part 
upon  the  amount  of  solid  food  habitually  taken  with  the 
drink ;  thus,  the  beer-drinker,  if  he  be  leading  a  life  of 
gi-eat  muscular  exertion,  may  find  his  appetite  but  little 
impaired  by  his  excess;  the  wine-drinker  also  usually 
feeds  high ;  whilst  the  spirit-drinker,  especially  among 
the  poorer  classes,  takes  his  dram  instead  of  solid  food, 
for  which  he  has  neither  appetite  nor  pecuniary  means. 
The  corpulence  of  the  beer  and  wine-drinker,  however, 
seldom  continues  to  old  age ;  and  the  parts  which  first 
begin  to  shrink  are  the  legs,  after  which  the  shoulders 
generally  give  way,  and  the  whole  body  becomes  loose, 
flabby,  and  inelastic ;   the  abdomen  alone  retaining  its 

6* 


66 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL. 


protuberance,  in  consequence  of  the  large  deposition  of 
fat  in  the  omentum,*  which  is  rarely  absorbed.  Such  a 
deposition  of  fat  is  almost  invariably  found  in  the  omen- 
tum of  confirmed  spirit-drinkers,!  notwithstanding  its 
absence  elsewhere. 

62.  A  general  corpulence  of  the  body,  however,  can 
by  no  means  be  admitted  as  an  indication  of  healthy 
nutrition :  indeed,  it  must  be  regarded  as  very  much  the 
reverse.  No  animal  in  a  state  of  nature  exhildts  any 
considerable  deposit  of  fat,  except  for  some  special  pur- 
pose (as  in  the  case  of  cetacea  and  other  warm-blooded 
animals  inhabiting  the  water,  where  the  coating  of  fat 
serves  as  a  non-conductor ;  or  in  the  case  of  hybernating 
mammals,  |  as  also  of  many  birds,  whose  autumnal  accu- 
mulation of  fat  is  destined  to  make  up  for  the  deprivation 
or  deficiency  of  food  in  the  winter) :  and  when,  by  a 
change  of  habits,  the  deposition  of  fat  is  artificially  pro- 
moted, it  is  obvious  that  the  muscular  vigor  and  general 
"  hardiness  "  of  the  system  are  much  im|)aired ;  the  ani- 
mal becoming  liable  to  many  disorders  from  which  it  was 
previously  exempt,  and  requiring  much  more  careful 
treatment  to  keep  it  in  good  condition.  When,  indeed,  we 
find  a  tendency  to  the  deposition  of  fat,  not  in  addition  to, 
but  instead  of,  the  normal  tissues,  the  case  is  one  of 
"  fatty  degeneration,"  and  must  be  regarded  as  a  positive 
disease ;  involving,  as  it  does,  a  general  fr  tional  in- 
activity. II 


*  Omenhim,  fatty  membrane  covering  the  bowels,  ■^ 

t  Dr.  Peters,  foe.  cit. 

%  IlybernatiiKj  mammals,  quadrupeds  which  become  torpid  in 
■winter. 

II  The  following  interesting  case  is  recorded  by  Dr.  Robertson 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


07 


we 

to, 

of 

tive 
in- 


63.  Diminished  Power  of  Sustaining'  Injuries  by 
Disease  or  Accident.  —  The  classes  of  men  among 
whom  there  is  an  appearance  of  remarkable  bodily  ^^gor, 
notwithstanding  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  alcohohc 
liquors,  are  those  who  are  continually  undergoing  great 
muscular  exertion,  and  who  not  only  drink  largely,  but 
eat  heartily.  Of  this  class,  the  London  coal-heavers, 
ballasters,  and  brewers'  draymen,  are  remarkal)lc  exam- 
ples :  many  of  them  drink  from  two  to  three  gallons  of 
porter  daily,  and  even  spirits  besides ;  they  are  for  the 
most  part  large,  gross,  unwieldy  men,  and  are  capable 
of  great  bodily  exertion,  —  so  long,,  at  least,  as  their  labor 
is  carried  on  in  the  open  air.*  But  it  does  not  hence 
follow  that  they  are  in  a  condition  of  real  vigor ;  for  the 
constitutions  of  such  men  break  down  before  they  are 
far  advanced  in  years,  even  if  they  do  not  earlier  fall 
victims  (as  a  large  proportion  of  them  do)  to  the  results 
of  disease  or  injury,  which  were  at  first  apparently  of 
the  most  trifling  character.  It  is  well  known  to  those 
who  have  observed  the  practice  of  the  London  hospitals, 
that,  when  such  men  suffer  from  inflammatory  attacks 

(Treatise  on  Diet,  fourth  edition,  vol.  i.  p.  272).  The  subject  of  it 
was  a  very  young  man,  who  died  thus  early  from  the  intemperate 
nse  of  spirits.  For  several  months  before  his  death,  ho  had  been 
unable  to  oat  more  than  a  very  small  quantity  of  food,  and  his 
powers  -were  almost  exclusively  maintained  by  frequent  dram- 
drinking.  The  immediate  cause  of  death  was  cerebral  "  ramol- 
lissemcnt ; "  but,  although  the  body  was  mucli  attenuated,  the 
muscular  fibre  of  the  system  much  wasted,  and  the  subcutaneous 
fat  of  the  extremities  had  almost  disappeared,  on  cutting  through 
the  abdominal  walls  to  examine  the  condition  of  the  liver,  at  least 
three  times  the  usual  thickness  of  fat  had  to  be  divided.  —  AurHou. 


:son 


See  Appendix  A. 


68 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


or  from  local  injuries,  these  are  peculiarly  disposed  to 
run  on  to  a  fatal  termination ;  in  consequence,  it  is  evi- 
dent, of  the  deficient  plasticity  of  the  blood,  of  the  low 
assimilative  power  of  the  solids,  and  of  the  general 
depression  of  the  whole  vital  energy,  resulting  from 
habitual  over-excitement.  The  want  of  plasticity  of  the 
blood  gives  to  the  inflammatory  processes  an  asthenic  * 
instead  of  a  sthenic  f  character ;  there  is  no  limitation  by 
pkstic  effusion,  but  they  spread  far  and  wide  through 
the  tissues;  depletion  cannot  be  borne;  and  the  only 
hope  of  success  lies  in  the  use  of  opium  and  stimulants 
with  nutritious  diet,  to  sustain,  so  far  as  possible,  the 
prostrated  energy.  Thus  we  see  that  in  such  men  the 
slightest  scratch  or  bruise  will  not  unfrequently  give 
rise  to  a  fatal  attack  of  erysipelas ;  and  that  internal 
organs  affected  with  inflammation  rapidly  become  infil- 
trated with  pus,  X  or  pass  into  a  gangrenous  state. 
Henco  the  surgeon  is  very  unwilling  to  perform  severe 
operations  upon  them,  knowing  that  their  chance  of 
recovery  is  but  small.  The  condition  of  these  men, 
in  regard  to  recovery  from  injuries,  is  in  remarkable 
contrast  to  that  of  men  who  have  been  "  trained  "  to 
pugilistic  encounters;  the  latter  having  been  brought 
to  a  condition  of-  lae  highest  possible  health,  by  active 
exercise,  abundance  of  nutritious  food,  occasional  mild 
purgation,  and  either  entire  abstinence  from  fermented 
liquore,  or  by  the  very  sparing  use  of  them.  Men  thus 
"trained"  recover  with  remarkable  rapidity  from  the 
severe  bruises  which  they  are  liable  to  receive. 


*  Asthenic,  wanting  strength.  f  Sthenic,  vigorous. 

X  Pus,  matter,  as  from  sores. 


ON  THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


69 


64.  Although  there  are  now  few  men  who  habitually 
take  winn  to  a  corresponding  extent,  or  who  maintain  by 
active  exercise  in  the  open  air  any  thing  like  the  same 
muscular  vigor,  yet  such  examples  are  occasionally  met 
with  among  the  fox-hunting  country  sf^uires,  who  spend 
their  whole  days  on  horseback,  and  pass  their  evenings 
in  drinking  port- wine.  Of  these,  also,  the  same  remark 
may  be  made;  that,  notwithstanding  their  appearance 
of  vigor,  they  are  bad  subjects  for  medical  or  surgical 
treatment,  owing  to  the  imperfect  condition  of  their 
nutritive  functions.  Among  the  spirit-drinkers  of  our 
large  towns,  it  is  notorious  that  .the  nutritive  and  re- 
parative powers  are  low;  and  of  this  fact  we  have  a 
remarkable  illustration  in  the  frequency,  among  the 
intemperate,  of  a  certain  form  of  phagedenic  ulceration, 
whose  origin  is  suflSciently  indicated  by  the  term  "  Ge- 
neva ulcer,"  by  which  it  is  commonly  known  at  Guy's 
and  other  metropohtan  hospitals.  This  ulcer,  usually 
commencing  on  the  leg,  begins  as  a  red,  angi*y,  and 
painful  spot,  which  passes  into  an  open  sore ;  and  this 
increases  rapidly,  both  in  depth  and  breadth,  so  as  even 
to  involve  the  whole  surface  of  the  calf,  laying  bare  the 
muscles,  tendons,  and  nerves.  It  is  not  confined,  how- 
ever, to  gin-drinkers,  but  is  occasionally  met  with  in  the 
bloated,  plethoric,  red-faced  wine-bibber. 

65.  Liability  to  Epidemic  Diseases,  —  Another  most 
important  indication  of  the  disordered  state  of  nutrition, 
consequent  upon  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  intoxicat- 
ing hquoi"s,  is  the  liability  of  the  intemperate  to  suffer 
from  various  other  morbific  causes,  especially  those  of  an 
epidemic  or  pestilential  nature.  On  this  last  point  there 
is,  the  writer  beheves,  no  difference  of  opinion  amongst 


/ 


/ 


70 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


medical  practitioners  in  any  part  of  the  world ;  all  being 
agreed  that  the  habitual  drunkard  is  fay  more  likely  to 
suffer  from  such  agencies  than  the  h^bitujilly  sober  or 
temperate  man.  Whether  hahitnal /hbsti7ie)}ce  is  still 
safer  than  habitual  moderation,  is  gr  point  which  cannot 
be  so  easily  ascertained :  some  considerations  on  this 
subject,  however,  will  be  offered  hereafter  (*§>  144 — 150). 
The  peculiar  liability  of  the  habitually  intemperate  to 
suffer  from  the  cholera-poison  is  well  known.  The  fol- 
lowing circumstance,  which  occurred  during  the  fonner 
epidemic  of  cholera,  is  very  significant  on  this  point; 
especially  showing  that  the  state  of  depression  which 
follows  excitement  is  the  one  in  which  the  system  is  most 
readily  affected.  The  nurses  in  the  Cholera  Hospital  at 
Manchester  were  at  first  worked  six  hours,  and  allowed 
to  go  home  the  other  six;  and  the  mortality  was  so 
great  amongst  them  that  there  were  fears  of  the  failure 
of  the  supply.  It  was  found,  however,  that  they  were 
much  given  to  alcoholic  potations  (with  the  idea,  proba- 
bly, of  increasing  their  power  of  resisting  the  malady) 
during  their  leisure  hours ;  and  they  were  therefore 
confined  to  the  hospital,  and  debarred  from  obtaining 
more  than  a  small  allowance  of  alcoholic  drink;  after 
which,  not  a  single  fresh  case  occurred  among  them. 
During  the  present  epidemic,  the  writer  has  learned 
from  various  sources,  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
those  invwhom  the  liability  to  the  disease  was  not  evi- 
dently produced  by  the  condition  of  the  locality  in  which 
they  resided,  might  be  considered  as  deriving  a  pre- 
disposition to  it  from  habitual  intemperance,  —  many 
establishments  having  lost  those  men,  and  those  only, 
who  had  been  accustomed  to  free  indulgence  in  the  use 


ON   THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


71 


of  alcoholic  liquors.  The  general  connection  between 
the  intemperate  habits  of  a  population,  and  its  high  rate 
of  mortality  from  various  causes,  will  \)e  shown  here- 
after ;  and  a  high  rate  of  mortalily  is  always  indicative 
of  a  large  amount  of  sickness,  although  the  ratio  between 
the  two  is  by  no  means  constant. 

66.  Gout  and  Rheumatism.  —  Among  the  general 
disorders  of  nutrition,  to  wliich  the  intemperate  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  certainly  predisposes,  although  it  may 
not  of  itself  cause  them,  are  gout  and  rheumatism.  The 
former  is  most  common  among  those  who  have  been 
accustomed  both  to  eat  and  to  drink  freely ;  and  it  is 
favored  by  such  a  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  stinmlates 
the  stomach  to  digest  more  azotized  *  aliment  than  the 
system  can  appropriate.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the 
fundamental  cause  of  the  disease,  when  it  occurs  in  its 
sthenic  form.  Of  the  ulterior  stages  of  it,  we  yet  know 
too  little  to  enable  us  to  trace  with  certainty  the  effect  of 
alcohol  upon  each  of  them ;  but  tliis  much  is  pretty  cer- 
tain, —  that  an  impaired  condition  of  the  nutritive  ope- 
rations will  be  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  mater ies 
morbi,-f  whatever  be  its  nature ;  that  tliis  will  be  further 
promoted  by  any  impediment  to  the  due  oxidation  of  the 
constituents  of  the  blood,  such  as  the  admixture  of  alcohol 
has  been  shown  to  occasion ;  and  that  the  ehmination  of 
this  morbid  matter  will  be  obstructed  by  that  torpid 
condition  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  to  wliich  these  organs 
are  especially  liable  in  those  who  have  habitually  over- 
excited them  in  earlier  life  (•§»  58).  In  the  production 
of  rheumatism,  also,  we  may  clearly  trace  the  aggravat- 

-  *  Azotized,  containing  much,  nitrogen,  as  in  animal  food, 
t  Materiea  morbi,  material  of  disease. 


72 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


ing  influonco  of  habitual  excfcL'8  in  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  especially  if  the  materies  morbi  be,  as  many- 
suppose,  lactic  acid,  *  or  one  of  its  compounds.  For, 
whilst  the  disordered  condition  of  the  assimilative  and 
nutritive  operations  will  give  a  special  tendency  to  the 
production  of  this  substance,  the  impediment  to  its  oxy- 
genation t  presented  by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the 
blood  will  cause  it  to  be  retained  and  to  accumulate  there, 
instead  of  being  burned  oflf  (which  it  ought  to  be,  as  fast 
as  formed)  and  escaping  from  the  lungs  in  the  condition  of 
carbonic  acid  and  Avatcr.^  Here,  again,  the  torpor  of  the 
liver  and  kidneys,  and  the  disordered  action  of  the  skin, 
in  the  habitually  intemperate,  will  present  an  additional 
obstacle  to  the  proper  elimination  of  the  morbific  mat- 
ter ;  and  in  rheumatism,  as  in  gout,  the  intensity  of  the 
inflammation  can  scarcely  but  be  augmented  by  the  dia- 
thesis II  induced  by  the  habitual  presence  of  alcohol  in 
the  blood.  All  these  predictions  are  verified  by  the 
experience  of  every  practical  man. 

67.  Diseases  of  the  Heart  and  Arteries.  —  Closely 
connected  with  the  gouty  and  rheumatic  diatheses  are 
diseases  of  the  heart  and  arteries ;  of  which  some  obvi- 
ously arise  out  of  these  constitutional  states,  and  are 


*  Lactic  acid,  acid  found  in  milk. 

t  Oxijgonation,  process  by  which  oxygen  is  supplied. 

%  This  idea  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  in  conducing  to  the 
retention  of  lactic  acid,  and  thereby  favoring  the  i-heumatic  diathe- 
sis, is  confirmed  by  the  success  of  Dr.  G.  O.  Ilees's  method  of 
treating  rheumatism  by  lemon  juice ;  the  rationale  of  which  seems 
to  be,  that  the  citric  acid  aiFords  a  large  and  ready  supply  of  oxy- 
gen, whereby  the  lactic  acid  (or  materies  morbi,  whatever  it  be)  is 
burned  off.  —  Author. 

II  Diathesis,  condition  of  body. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


78 


thus  imiirectly  favored  hy  tlie  alnisc  of  ulcoliulic  liiiuors ; 
wliilst  otliers  seem  to  be  more  tlirectly  tlepeiKloiit  upon 
the  introUiiction  of  alcohol  into  the  blood.  The  continual 
but  irregular  excitement  of  the  contractile  action  of  the 
heart  and  arteries,  Avhich  is  the  result  of  the  habitual  use 
of  stimulants,  must  of  itself  predispose  their  tissues  to 
disease ;  and  tliis  predisposition  will,  of  course,  be  in- 
creased by  the  contact  of  blood  charged  with  alcohol 
with  their  lining  membrane,  as  Avell  as  by  the  general 
disordered  condition  of  the  nutritive  operations.  Now, 
attacks  of  acute  arteritis*  seem  not  unfrecjuently  traceable 
to  alcohohc  intoxication ;  and  it  cannot,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  improbable,  that  those  more  chronic  disorders 
of  their  walls,  which  give  rise  to  aneurism, f  softening, 
fatty  degeneration,  and  other  structural  changes,  and 
wliich  thereby  predispose  to  hemorrhage,  should  be 
favored,  if  not  absolutely  produced,  by  the  habitual 
presence  of  alcohol  in  the  circulating  current.  Accord- 
ingly, we  find  the  intemperate  use  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
specified  by  authors  on  the  diseases  of  arteries,  as  among 
the  most  important  of  their  predisposing  causes. 

68.  Spontaneous  Combustion,  —  Although  the  phe- 
nomenon termed  "spontaneous  combustion"  of  the 
human  body  is  one  of  such  rarity  that  it  might  seem 
scarcely  to  deserve  to  be  ranked  among  the  ordinary  re- 
sults of  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
yet  it  should  not  be  passed  by  in  any  inquiry  into  the 
consequences  of  such  excess ;  more  especially  since  it  may 
be  regai-ded,  with  much  probability,  as  resulting  from  the 
same  kind  of  perverted  nutrition,  carried  to  an  extreme 

*  Arteritis,  disease  of  the  arteries, 
t  Aneurism,  tumor  of  the  arteries. 


I 


74 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


degree,  as  that  to  which  wc  have  ah'cady  traced  various 
other  consefjuences.  It  would  be  more  correct  to  speak 
of  these  cases  as  instances  of  unusual  combustibility  of 
the  body,  than  of  really  spontaneous  combustion ;  since, 
in  scarcely  any  of  them,  perhaps  in  none,  does  there 
seem  adequate  evidence  that  the  combustion  originated 
without  the  contact  of  external  flame ;  their  real  pecu- 
liarity consisting  in  this,  —  that,  whereas  an  ordinary 
human  body  requires  a  largo  amount  of  wood,  coal,  or 
other  inflammable  material,  for  its  combustion,  the  body 
in  the  subjects  of  this  accident  takes  fire  very  readily, 
and  bums  as  if  it  Avcre  itself  highly  inflammable.  In 
some  instances,  it  has  appeared  as  if  a  very  inflammable 
gas  were  given  off"  from  the  body ;  a  flame  having  darted 
towards  it  from  some  distance.  In  all,  or  nearly  all,  the 
cases  in  which  the  previous  habits  of  the  individuals 
were  known,  they  had  been  intemperate;  and  it  is  re- 
markable that  the  greater  number  of  recorded  instances 
occurred  among  fat  old  people  who  had  been  spirit- 
drinkers.  The  chief  source  of  this  peculiar  combustibility 
is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  impregnation  of  the  fluids 
and  solids  of  the  body  with  phosphorus,  which  is  per- 
haps united  with  hydrogen,  so  as  to  form  some  highly 
inflammable  compound.  This  may  be  conceived  to  result 
from  the  habitual  ingestion  of  alcohol,  in  the  following 
way :  The  normal  mode  in  which  the  phosphorus,  set 
free  by  the  waste  or  disintegration  of  nervous  matter,  is 
extricated  from  the  system,  is  through  the  urine,  after 
having  been  converted  by  oxidation  into  phosphoric  acid. 
Now,  if  there  be  not  oxygen  enough  in  the  blood  to 
eflFect  this  conversion,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  phos- 
phorus would  be  retained  in  the  fluids,  and  possibly  depo- 


\  r 


ON  THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


75 


sited  again  in  tlio  solids ;  and,  since  we  have  seen  that 
the  continual  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  circulation  gives 
even  to  arterial  hWl  a  venous  character,  it  is  not  difTi- 
cult  to  understand  how  such  a  retention  of  the  phosphorus 
destined  for  excretion  should  l)e  favored  hy  hahitual  in- 
temjKJrance.  It  is  a  reniarkuble  confirmation  of  this 
view,  that  the  breath  of  drunkards  luia  been  sometimes 
observed  to  bo  luminous,  an  if  it  contained  the  vajwr  of 
phosphorus  or  of  some  of  its  compounds ;  and  that  it  hag 
been  found  by  experiments  upon  dogs,  that,  if  phosphorus 
be  mixed  with  oil  and  injected  into  the  blood-vessels,  it 
escapes  unburned  from  the  lungs,  if  time  be  not  given 
it  to  unite  with  the  oxygen  of  the  blood.* 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  disorders,  local  and 
constitutional,  in  the  production  of  wliich  we  can  trace 
the  operation  of  the  habitually  excessive  use  of  alcohohc 
stimulants,  with  tolerable  directness.  It  would  be  easy 
to  extend  this  catalogue  by  the  inclusion  of  other  dis- 
eases which  are  manifestly  aggravated  by  intemperate 
habits ;  but  this,  in  fact,  would  require  the  enumeration 
of  almost  every  disease  to  which  the  human  body  is 
subject,  more  especially  if  inflammation  participate  in  it. 
But  the  writer  thinks  it  preferable  to  limit  his  state- 
ments to  the  cases  in  which  the  chain  of  causation  is 
most  continuously  and  obviously  traceable.  It  has  been 
his  object  throughout  to  show  what  consequences  might 


♦  See  Casper's  Wochenschrift,  1849,  No.  15.  The  luminosity 
observed  by  Sir  Henry  Marsh  in  the  faces  of  two  phthisical 
patients  was  probably  due  to  the  same  cause,  —  the  imperfect 
oxidation  of  phosphorus  within  the  body,  and  its  consequent 
extrication  from  the  skin  in  a  vaporous  condition.  —  Author. 


76 


EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL 


!l 


be  expected  to  arise  from  habitual  "  intemperance ;  " 
regard  being  had  to  the  facts  which  have  been  fully 
ascertained,  with  respect  to  the  modus  operandi  of  al- 
cohol on  the  system  at  large,  and  on  special  organs. 
It  has  been  shown,  that  a  variety  of  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system,  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  of  the  secret- 
ing organs,  of  the  skin,  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  and  of 
the  organic  fluids  and  solids  in  general,  might  be  thus 
anticipated;  and  that  such  anticipations  are  all  com- 
pletely verified  by  the  results  of  practical  observation. 
We  might  now  push  the  investigation  further,  and 
inquire  what  evidence  we  have  in  regard  to  the  con- 
sequences of  the  habitually  "moderate"  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  on  the  human  system.  It  must  be  freely  ad- 
mitted, however,  that  we  have  not  the  same  data  for 
the  determination  of  this  question,  as  of  that  on  which 
we  have  been  hitherto  engaged ;  and  this  on  two  accounts : 
first,  that  the  consequences  will  be  naturally  remote,  and 
will  be  often  such  as  appear  fairly  attributable,  in  great 
part,  if  not  entirely,  to  other  causes;  and,  second,  that 
the  very  general  prevalence  of  the  "  moderate  "  or  "  tem- 
perate" use  of  alcohohc  liquors,  and  the  shortness  of  the 
time  during  which  total  abstinence  has  been  hitherto 
practised  by  any  large  number  of  individuals,  render  it 
difiicult,  if  not  impossible,  to  draw  any  valid  inference, 
as  yet,  from  comparative  observation.  But  the  writer 
would  argue,  that,  if  we  have  such  a  complete  accord- 
ance between  the  predictions  of  theory  and  the  results 
of  observation,  in  regard  to  the  consequences  of  habitual 
"excess,"  as  establishes  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect 
beyond  dispute,  Ave  have  a  strong  case  in  favor  of  such 
a  relation,  when,  the  cause  being  in  less  active  operation, 


/  M 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


77 


. " 


the  predicted  effects  do  occur,  even  though  at  a  period 
so  remote  as  apparently  to  disconnect  them  from  its 
influence.  For  various  reasons,  however,  he  deems  it 
advisable  to  carry  out  this  inquiry  under  the  second 
head,  where  it  will  be  more  conveniently  discussed. 

IV.    GENERAL  EFFECT  OF  THE  EXCESSIVE  USE  OF  ALCO- 
HOLIC  LIQUORS   ON   THE   DURATION   OF   LIFE. 

69.  We  shall  close  this  part  of  the  inquiry  by  examin- 
ing into  the  general  tendency  of  the  excessive  use  of 
alcohoUc  hquors  to  shorten  life ;  either  by  themselves 
giving  rise  to  the  diseases  above  enumerated,  or  by  in- 
creasing the  susceptibihty  of  the  system  to  other  morbific 
causes.  That  such  a  tendency  exists  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  questioned.  No  life-insurance  office  will  accept  an 
insurance  on  an  individual  whose  habits  are  known  to  be 
intemperate  ;  and  if  it  be  discovered  after  his  death  that 
he  has  been  accustomed  to  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors,  contrary  to  his  statement  in  his  proposal  for 
insurance,  the  jjolicy  is  declared  void.  And  it  is, 
doubtless,  owing  in  part  to  the  superior  sobriety  of  the 
great  bulk  of  insurers  over  that  of  the  average  of  the 
population,  that  a  lower  rate  of  mortality  presents  itself 
amongst  them,  than  that  which  might  be  expected  ac- 
cording to  the  calculations  founded  on  the  entire  mor- 
tality of  the  country,  —  to  the  great  profit  of  the  office. 
Thus,  at  the  age  of  40  years,  the  annual  rate  of  mortality 
among  the  whole  population  of  England  is  about  13  per 
1000 ;  whilst,  among  the  lives  insured  in  life  offices,  it  is 
about  11  per  lOQO  ;  and  in  those  insured  in  friendly 
societies,  it  is  about  10  per  1000.  Now,  the  average  mor- 
tality for  all  ages  between  15  and  70  years  is  about  20 
7* 


T8 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


per  1000 ;  whereas,  in  the  Temperance  Provident  Institu- 
tion, after  an  experience  of  eight  years,  and  with  several 
lives  above  70  years  of  age,  the  average  mortality  has  been 
only  G  per  1000,  up  to  the  present  season,  in  which  it 
has  undergone  a  slight  increase  from  the  cholera  epi- 
demic. It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that,  altliough 
many  of  the  insurers  in  this  office  are  of  the  poorer 
class,  whose  condition  and  employments  expose  them 
much  more  than  the  middling  classes  gener.ally  to  the 
endemic  causes  of  cholera,  no  more  than  eight  have  died 
of  this  disease,  out  of  the  total  of  about  3,500  insurers. 
As  a  means  of  further  comparison,  the  following  table 
may  be  subjoined,  in  Avhich  the  mortahty  of  the  insurers 
in  the  Temperance  Provident  Institution,  for  the  first 
five  years,  is  compared  with  that  of  the  insurers  in  other 
offices  during  the  corresponding  period  of  their  exist- 
ence :  — 

Life  Piilicies.  Deaths. 

A  issued  914,  and  had  14;  being  equal  to  13  per  thou'and. 
B      „      1901,        „        27;  „  11 

C      ,,        838,        „        11 ;  „  13  „ 

D      „       2170,        „        65;  „  26 

TPI„       lo96,        „        12;  „  7i 


M 


During  the  sixth  year  of  its  existence,  only  iivo  deaths 
occurred  out  of  the  whole  number  of  insurers  in  the  Tem- 
perance I*rovidcnt  Institution,  l)y  which  its  annual  aver- 
age of  mortality  Avas  reduced  still  lower. 

70.  Such  comparisons,  however,  must  not  be  regarded 
as  demonstrating  that  the  usual  rate  of  mortality  among 
"  moderate"  or  ''temperate"'  men  is  reduced  to  half  its 
amount  by  "total  abstinence;  "  since  other  causes  have 
dou])tless  concuired  to  keep  down  the  mortality  in  the 
Temperance  Provident  Listitution,  —  such  as  a  more 


■IT 


ON  THE  HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


79 


Idcatlis 
Tem- 
sivcr- 

^ardcd 
imong 
tilf  its 

have 
5n  the 

more 


healthful  condition  of  the  class  which  has  furnished 
most  of  the  insurers,  or  a  more  favorable  distribution 
of  ages.  But  it  will  be  seen  to  be  impossible,  that  either 
of  these  separately,  or  both  conjointly,  should  have  occa- 
sioned the  whole  of  the  difference  above  pointed  out; 
the  annual  average,  G  per  1000,  being  no  higher  than 
that  of  the  age  of  le5,  which  is  more  favorable  than  that 
of  any  other  period  of  life.  And  we  appear  fully  justi- 
fied, therefore,  in  attributing  a  part  of  the  result  to  the 
abslinent  system  practised  by  the  insurers  in  the  Tem- 
perance Provident  Office. 

71.  The  influence  of  excess  in  the  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  in  directly  producing  sickness  and  mortality,  or 
in  predisposing  to  it,  is  most  remarkable  in  tropical  cli- 
mates, and  especially  in  such  as  are  otherAvisc  unhealthy. 
It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  the  more  unhealthy  the 
station,  the  more  freely  do  the  residents  at  it  indulge  in 
the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants ;  either  from  the  mistaken 
idea  that  they  enable  them  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the 
chmate,  or  from  the  desire  that  their  life,  if  short,  shall 
be  a  merry  one.  Some  years  since,  the  writer,  being 
himself  in  the  Island  of  St.  Vincent  in  the  "West  Indies, 
met  Avith  a  gentleman  resident  in  Tobago,  who  informed 
him  that  the  average  annual  mortality  amonirst  the  Eu- 
ropeans of  that  island  was  about  oie  in  fJircc.  Upon 
inquiry  into  the  halnts  of  the  residents,  it  was  found  that 
intemperance  prevailed  to  a  most  fearful  extent  among 
them ;  few  getting  up  in  the  morning  witliout  their  glass 
of  sangaree  (wine  and  water),  and  the  strength  of  their 
beverage  gradually  increasing  during  the  day.  until  it 
arrived  at  neat  brandy  at  night.  He  further  sp<^ke  of  it 
as  no  uncommon  occurrence  for  a  party  of  friends  who 


80 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


had  met  at  a  drinking-bout,  to  be  summoned,  within  two 
or  three  days,  to  the  funeral  of  one  or  two  of  their 
number.  This  gentleman  was  himself  apparently  quite 
indisposed  to  recognize  between  these  occurrences  any 
relation  of  cause  and  effect ;  being  obviously  under  the 
belief,  that,  if  it  were  not  for  the  protecting  influence  of 
good  wine  and  brandy,  his  life  would  be  worth  a  yet 
shorter  purchase.  We  shall  be  led,  however,  by  the 
evidence  about  to  be  adduced,  to  a  different  conclusion. 

72.  The  writer  has  on  various  occasions  sought  for 
information  from  those  who  had  preserved  their  health 
during  a  long  residence  in  tropical  climates,  as  to  their 
habits  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  and  has  almost 
invariably  found  that  they  had  practised  extreme  modera- 
tion, if  not  total  abstinence. 

73.  At  the  Statistical  Section  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, in  the  year  1848,  a  paper  by  INIr.  Balfour  having 
been  read  on  the  "  Means  of  maintaining  the  Health  of 
Troops  in  India,"  —  in  which  paper  the  author  attempted 
to  show  that  intemperance  would  be  found  to  add  but 
a  small  proportion  to  the  deaths  from  chmatorial  diseases, 
but  that  the  special  liability  of  Europeans  to  the  diseases 
of  hot  climates  arises  from  their  unsuitability  of  consti- 
tution to  any  climate  widely  different  from  that  of  their 
own  country,  —  an  important  discussion  took  place,  in 
the  course  of  which  some  valuable  facts  were  cstaT)lished 
by  the  testimony  of  several  officers  present  (medical  and 
otherwise),  who  had  served  in  India  and  elsewhere.  The 
returns  contained  in  the  paper  showed  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  rate  of  morality  between  the  ordinary  soldiers 
and  the  officers  ;  a  difference  which  was  greater  accord- 
ing to  the  unhealthiness  of  the  station.     Now,  a  certain 


ON   THE  UEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


81 


part  of  this  difference  must  be  admitted  to  be  due  to  the 
superior  character  of  the  officer's  lodging,  and  to  his 
partial  exemption  from  the  fatigue  and  the  exposure  to 
which  the  soldier  is  lialjlo.  But  the  difference  is  chiefly 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  difference  in  the  manner  of 
living  between  the  soldiers  and  the  officers ;  the  former 
being  allowed  a  regular  ration  of  spirits,  and  many  of 
them  getting  as  much  more  as  they  can ;  whilst  the 
latter  are  now  comparatively  abstemious,  drinking  wine 
or  beer  in  place  of  ;  »ivits,  and  this  to  a  mach  less  extent 
than  formerly.  With  regard  to  the  Indian  service,  it 
was  specially  asserted  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Sykes,  who 
has  paid  great  attention  to  the  statistics  of  the  Indian 
army,  that,  since  it  has  become  the  custom  among  the 
officers  to  drink  bitter  ale  in  place  of  wines  or  spirits, 
the  rate  of  mortality  among  them  is  so  greatly  dimin- 
ished, that  promotion  is  no  longer  expected  to  take  place 
more  rapidly  in  the  Indian  army  than  in  other  depart- 
ments of  the  service.  In  illustration  of  the  extreme 
injury  done  by  intemperance  to  the  Indian  troops,  a 
medical  officer  stated,  that,  within  a  month  after  the 
arrival  of  the  order  for  the  discontinuance  of  temperance 
societies,*  he  had/or^//  cases  of  delirium  tremens  in  his 
own  regiment. 

74.  That  the  haljility  to  chmatorial  disease  is  by  no 
means  inevitable,  and  that  it  is  especially  to  be  avoided 
by  the  adoption  of  the  habits  in  regard  to  diet,  &c.^of  the 


*  The  authorities  at  the  Horse  Guards,  -vvho  have  taken  the  ex- 
traordinary step  of  putting  down  temperance  societies  in  the  army, 
on  the  ground  that  every  organization  but  the  regimental  is  con- 
trary to  the  discipline  of  the  service,  can  scarcely  be  supposed 
cognizant  of  what  they  have  to  answer  for.  —  Author. 


82 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


native  population,  where  that  is  healthy,  is  the  testimony 
of  all  those  who  have  had  most  extensive  opportunities  of 
forming  a  judgment  on  the  subject.  The  two  following 
citations  from  diflferent  publications  —  the  one  by  Lieute- 
nant-Colonel Sykes,  who  was  himself  long  resident  in 
India ;  the  other  by  Dr.  Daniell,  assistant-surgeon  to  the 
forces,  who  has  had  the  superintendence  for  a  consider- 
able time  of  some  of  the  most  unhealthy  stations  on  the 
western  cost  of  Africa  —  will  carry  with  them  great 
weight.  "  I  never  followed  a  farinaceous  or  vegetable 
regiment  myself  in  India,"  says  Colonel  S.  "  nor  do  I 
recommend  it  to  others  ;  but  I  ate  moderately  and  drank 
little,  and  I  have  a  strong  conviction  that  much  of  Euro- 
pean disease  in  India  is  traceable  to  over-stimulus,  and 
that  the  mortality  among  the  European  troops  will  not 
be  lessened  until  the  European  soldier  is  improved  in 
his  habits  ;  until  he  is  made  to  understand  that  temper- 
ance is  for  the  benefit  of  his  body,  libraries  for  the  benefit 
of  his  mind,  exercise  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and 
savings'  banks  for  the  benefit  of  his  purse.  The  climate 
of  India  is  less  to  blame  than  individuals ;  for^  in  case 
foreigners  find  the  people  in  a  country  healthy,  they 
sliould,  to  a  certain  extent,  conform  to  the  habits  of  the 
natives  to  be  healthy  also."  *  So  with  regard  to  Africa, 
Dr.  Daniell  says,  "It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
notorious  insalubrity  of  Africa  has  frequently  served  as 
the  scape-goat  on  which  the  blame  of  those  evil  conse- 
quences (resulting  from  the  reprehensible  indulgence  of 
dissipated  courses)  might  be  unreservedly  thrown,  without 


*  Vital  Statistics  of  the  Indian  Army,  in  Journal  of  the  Statis- 
tical Society,  vol.  x.  p.  184. 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


88 


the  risk  of  their  being  disputed  or  questioned."*  And 
again,  when  describing  the  Bight  of  Benin,  one  of  the 
most  pestilential  localities  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  he 
says :  "  And  yet,  amid  these  regions  so  rife  with  disease 
and  death,  I  have  known  Europeans  reside  for  a  number 
of  years  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  health,  from  the  simple 
secret  of  moderately  conforming  to  the  habits  of  the 
natives  as  regards  their  diet,  exercise,  and  attention  to 
the  due  perforaiance  of  the  cutaneous  functions."f 

75.  The  evidence  of  statistics,  however,  is  more  valua- 
ble on  this  point  than  the  mere  aflfinnation  of  individuals, 
however  trustworthy ;  and  to  this,  as  set  before  us  by 
Colonel  Sykes,  we  shall  now  proceed.  The  per  centage 
annual  mortality  from  sickness  of  the  three  armies  of 
Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Madras,  for  the  last  twenty  years, 
has  averaged  as  follows  :  — 

Bengal. 

Native 1-79 

European 7*38 

This  table  presents  some  very  remarkable  features. 
In  the  first  place,  the  striking  contrast  between  the  rate 
of  mortality  of  the  European  and  of  the  native  troops, 
serving  together,  and  exposed  to  the  same  morbific  causes. 
Secondly,  the  great  difference  between  the  mortality  of 
the  troops  serving  in  the  difierent  presidencies.  And, 
thirdly,  the  circumstance  that  in  the  Madras  Presidency 
the  rate  of  mortality  is  highest  amongst  the  native  troops, 
and  lowest  among  the  Europeans. 

76.  Now,  on  the  first  point,  Colonel  Sykes  remarks : 

*  Sketches  of  the  Medical  Topography  and  Native  Diseases  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  Western  Africa,  p.  13. 
t  Op.  cit.  p.  61. 


Bombay. 

Madras, 

1-291 

2-095 

6-071 

3-846 

84 


EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL 


"  I  -svill  not  say  that  the  (|uestion  is  absolutely  solved  by 
the  reply,  '  Habits  of  life ; '  but  I  will  say,  reasoning 
from  analogy,  that  the  reply  goes  a  great  way  to  solve 
it.  The  European  soldier  in  India  is  over-stimidated  by 
food,  over-stimulated  by  drink,  and  under-stimulated  in 
mind  and  body.  The  European  soldier  eats  a  quantity 
of  animal  food  every  day  of  his  life ;  he  drinks  a  quan- 
tity of  alcohol  every  day  of  his  life  to  the  amount  of  a 
bottle  of  spirits  in  every  five  days,  two  drams  being 
served  out  to  him  daily ;  and  he  has  not  any  mental  and 
httle  bodily  exercise.  Happily  the  pernicious  practice 
has  been  recently  discontinued ;  but  time  was  when  the 
European  soldier  Avas  compelled  to  take  liis  drjim  by 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  with  the  thermometer 
varying  from  70^  to  90°  or  more,  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year,  leaving  him  in  a  state  of  nervous  irritation 
and  thirst,  which  could  only  be  relieved,  as  ho  thought, 
by  further  potations  :  indeed,  I  have  been  assured,  within 
the  last  few  days,  by  a  pensioned  artillery  staff-sergeant, 
vjho  never  drank  in  India,  and  ivas  only  in  hospital 
five  days  during"  tiserdy-onc  years'  service,  that  he  has 
known,  out  of  a  detachment  of  one  hundred  artillery 
men,  no  less  than  eight  men  in  strait  jackets  at  one  time, 
absolutely  mad  from  drink.  Now,  animal  food,  with 
the  assistance  of  such  an  auxiliary,  and  combined  with 
mental  vacuity,  go  far  to  account  for  the  excess  of  mor- 
tahty  amongst  Europeans." 

77.  The  question  next  arises,  why  the  mortality  of 
the  European  troops  in  the  IMadras  Presidency  should  be 
so  much  less  than  that  of  the  others,  being  about  three- 
fourths  that  of  the  Bombay  troops,  and  but  little  more 
than  half  that  of  the  Bengal  army ;  whilst,  on  thje  other 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


85 


hand,  the  mortality  of  the  native  troops  in  the  Bombay 
army  is  but  liltle  more  than  two-thirds  of  that  of  the 


Bengal 


army, 


and  less   than   two-thirds  that  of  the 


Madras  army.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  such 
diflference  in  the  climatorial  diseases,  or  in  the  character 
of  the  military  stations,  of  the  three  presidencies,  as  are 
by  any  means  sufficient  to  account  for  this  discrepancy ; 
and,  if  there  were,  Ave  should  expect  them  to  manifest 
themselves  ahke  in  the  native  and  in  the  European 
army.  That  the  reverae  is  the  case  must  be  admitted 
to  be  a  cogent  argument,  if  not  a  complete  proof,  in 
favor  of  the  insufficiency  of  any  such  account  of  the 
discrepancy.  The  following  are  the  causes  assigned  by 
Colonel  Sykes :  The  Bengal  European  array  has  no 
supply  of  porter,  but  is  furnished  with  rum,  a  spirit  not 
so  wholesome  as  arrack.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Ma- 
dras army  consume  large  quantities  of  porter,  and  drink 
comparatively  little  spirit ;  what  they  do  consume  being 
arrack.  The  Bombay  troops  have  only  recently  com- 
menced the  consumption  of  porter ;  and  the  spirit  they 
drink  is  understood  to  be  more  wholesome  than  rum,  and 
less  so  than  arrack.  "These  results,"  says  Colonel 
Sykes,  "  are  certainly  not  conclusive  ;  but  I  cannot  help 
associating  the  increased  consumption  of  malt-liquor  by 
the  Madras  Europeans  with  their  comparative  healthi- 
ness ;  and  the  gradations  of  the  moi*tality  in  the  Bengal 
and  Bombay  European  troops  as  partly  influenced  by 
the  quality  (no  doubt  much  more  by  the  quantity)  of  the 
spirits  they  respectively  consume."' 

78.  On  the  other  hand,  the  excess  of  mortahty  in  the 
native  army  of  Madras  above  that  of  the  Bengal  and 
Bombay  troops  is  equally  attributable  to  a  diffijrence  in 
the  habits  of  the  individuals  composing  it.      "  Of  the 


86 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


Bombay  army,"  says  Colonel  Sykes,  "  six-eighths  con- 
sist of  Hindoos,  and  considerably  more  than  half  of  the 
whole  army  are  Hindostanees.  These  men  never  taste 
meat,  fish,  or  spirituous  liquors,  but  live,  I  may  from 
personal  observation  venture  to  say,  almost  exclusively 
upon  unleavened  cakes  of  wheat  or  other  cerealia,  baked 
upon  an  iron  dish,  and  eaten  as  soon  as  cooked.  The 
great  majority  of  the  Bengal  army  consists  of  a  similar 
class  of  men.  The  Madras  army,  in  its  constituents, 
is  the  reverse  of  the  other  two.  In  the  cavalry  there 
are  from  six  to  seven  Mussulmans  to  one  Hindoo,  and 
in  the  infantry  there  is  one  Mussulman  to  every  1^ 
or  If  Hindoos ;  but  amongst  the  latter  there  is  a  con- 
siderable number  of  low  castes,  without  prejudices  about 
food,  and  unrestrained  by  the  prejudices  of  caste :  there- 
fore the  majority  of  the  native  troops  of  the  Madras 
army  can  eat  and  drink  like  Europeans."  Thus,  then, 
we  see  that,  whereas  in  the  Madras  army,  in  which 
the  European  and  native  habits  most  closely  assimilate, 
the  mortality  of  the  former  is  less  than  double  (about  38 
to  21)  that  of  the  latter,  the  mortality  of  the  Bengal 
Europeans  is  nearly  six  times  (about  74  to  13)  that  of 
the  Bombay  natives ;  this  difiFererice  bearing  such  a  rela- 
tion to  the  greater  abstemiousness  of  the  native  soldiers, 
and  the  larger  consumption  of  spirits  by  the  Europeans, 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  avoid  the  inference  that  they 
must  be  connected  in  the  relation  of  effect  and  cause. 

79.  The  following  returns  are  of  value,  as  showing 
the  proportion  of  sickness  between  the  members  of  Tem- 
perance Societies  *  in  the  European  regiments  serving 

*  In  these  societies,  the  pledge  simply  held  the  members  to 
abstinence  from  distilled  spirits,  and  from  excess  in  the  uae  of 
any  fermented  liquor.  —  Author. 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


87 


;  they 


in  India,  and  the  soldiers  not  members  of  these  societies ; 
the  average  daily  number  of  men  in  hospital  of  each 
class  being  state<l  for  each  of  the  first  six  months  of 
1838,  and  the  per  centage  being  calculated  with  refer- 
ence to  the  strength  of  each  division. 


MooUs. 

Sirtiiiith  of 

ttM  Temp<>rftnoe 

BocietiM. 

Htrrngth 

of  remmin<ler  of 

Regiment. 

KcUtire  pnpnrtloai  admilUd          Arert^v  lUlljr  mt  mnt-  | 
la  HtivDrtli.                          •)!«  of  men  In  HoiplMl. 

TrraprrMm 
8mI<Ij. 

Rrm&inilrr  of 
Regiment. 

Temperance 
Society. 

Remainder 

of 
Re«)raenl. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

1953 
1840 
1542 
1359 
1282 
1364 

2569 
2639 
2879 
3081 
3161 
3075 

1  in  18-77 
1  in  20-10 
1  in  14-44 
1  in  10-9 
1  in  18  44 
1  in  19-53 

1  in  9-22 
1  in  9.24 
1  in  714 
1  in  5- 26 
1  in  6-35 
1  in  6-37 

2-54 
2-27 
2-94 
5-47 
5-24 
4-65 

815 

8-27 

8-66 

10-28 

10-66 

10-35 

Total 

9340 

17,404 

1  in  16-47 

1  in  7-28 

3-65 

10-20 

Thus  it  appears,  that,  on  the  whole,  the  daily  per 
centage  of  invalids  among  the  members  of  the  temi)er- 
ance  societies  was  but  3-65,  whilst  in  the  remainder  of 
the  troops  it  was  10*20,  or  nearly  three  times  as  great. 
The  Cameronian  regiment,  stationed  in  Fort  William  in 
the  years  1837  and  1838,  lost  only  twenty-six  men 
in  the  first  of  these  years,  and  twenty-two  in  the  second ; 
whereas  the  average  mortality  in  Fort  William,  for  a 
period  of  fourteen  years  previously,  had  been  nearly 
seventy'two.  The  proportion  of  the  regiment  which 
belonged  to  the  Temperance  Society  was  continually 
varying ;  but  the  general  result  of  its  operation  was, 
that,  since  the  arrival  of  the  regiment  in  India,  its  an- 
nual consumption  of  spirits  diminished  from  10,000, 
12,000,  and  even  14,000  gallons,  to  2,516 ;  the  amount 
drunk  in  1837  having  been  9,673  gallons  less,  and  in 


88 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOUOL 


1838,  8,242  gallons  less,  than  the  regiment  was  entitled 
to  draw.  On  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  amount  of 
beer  and  wine  had  been  drunk ;  but  these  beverages  are 
far  less  injurious  to  health,  especially  in  India,  than 
distilled  8])irits. 

80.  Having  learned  that  the  84th  Regiment  of  Her 
Majesty's  Foot  has  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  reputation 
of  l)eing  one  of  the  most  temperate  and  well-conducted 
regiments  in  the  European  portion  of  the  Indian  army,  the 
writer  has  consulted  the  Army  Medical  Returns,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  its  rate  of  mortaUty  has 
diflfered  in  any  marked  degree  from  the  average  given 
above;  more  especially  since  it  has  been  quartered  at 
Secunderabad,  which  lies  under  the  bad  repute  of  being 
one  of  the  most  unhealthy  stations  in  the  Madras  Presi- 
dency. That  this  bad  repute  is  well  deserved  is  shown 
by  the  fact,  that  the  annual  mortality,  for  an  average  of 
fifteen  years  previously  to  1846-7,  has  been  7*5  per 
cent ;  nearly  double  the  average  of  the  whole  presi- 
dency, and  more  than  double  the  average  of  the  other 
stations.  The  evil  seems  traceable  to  the  insuflScient 
barrack-accommodation  rather  than  to  the  condition  of 
the  surrounding  country ;  for  one-third  of  the  men  are 
obliged  to  sleep  in  the  verandahs,  and  the  remainder 
have  by  no  means  a  due  allowance  of  fresh  air ;  whilst 
the  officers  of  the  regiment  quartered  there,  and  the 
artillery  company,  who  are  better  lodged,  have  not  shown 
any  excess  of  mortality  above  the  average. 

81.  Now,  in  the  year  1846-7,  the  average  strength  of 
her  majesty's  troops  in  the  Madras  Presidency  was  5,963, 
and  the  number  of  deaths  was  251,  or  4  21  per  cent;  which 
is  rather  above  the  average  mortality  in  this  presidency, 


ON   THE   HEALTHY   SYSTEM. 


89 


calculated  by  Colonel  Sykcs  from  tlic  return;^  of  twenty 
years.  During  the  first  eight  niontlis  of  this  j.diod, 
the  84th  regiment  was  (quartered  at  Fort  St.  George, 
Madras,  which  is  considered  a  healthy  station ;  it  then 
performed  a  march  of  between  four  and  five  hundred 
miles  to  Secunderabad,  in  an  unusually  wet  season,  the 
roads  (such  as  they  were)  being  in  some  parts  knee-deep 
in  water ;  *  and  it  took  up  its  quartera  at  Secunderabad, 
about  two  months  previously  to  the  date  of  the  return 
(April  Ist,  1847).  The  medical  return  of  the  regiment 
for  this  year  presents  us  with  the  almost  unprecedentedly 
low  number  of  thirteen  deaths  in  an  average  strength  of 
1,072  men  ;  the  mortality  being  thus  at  the  rate  of  only 
1*21  per  cent.  Now,  during  the  same  period,  the  63d 
regiment,  which  was  quartered  at  Secunderabid  up  to 
February  Ist,  1847  (or  nine  months  out  of  the  twelve), 
lost  seventy-three  men,  which  was  at  the  rate  of  788 
per  cent  for  the  entire  year ;  whilst  the  moi-tality  for  all 
the  other  stations  in  the  Mjidras  command  was  only  3*02 
per  cent  for  the  same  year.  Hence  we  see  that  the 
mortality  of  the  84th  regiment  for  the  year  1846-7  was 
only  two-fifths  of  that  of  the  average  of  the  healthier 
stations  in  the  Madras  Presidency,  which  average  its 
own  very  low  rate  contributed  to  reduce. 

82.  During  the  year  1847-8,  the  total  mortality  in 
the  Madras  Presidency  was  227  to  6,040  of  average 
strength,  or  8*76  per  cent ;  but  this  reduction  from  the 
preceding  year  was  not  due  to  any  considerable  difference 
in  the  rate  of  mortality  at  the  other  stations,  being 
almost  entirely  consequent  upon  the  diminution  in  the 

*  Of  this  march  a  more  particular  account  wU  be  given  fur- 
ther on  (§  140). 
8* 


90 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


number  of  deaths  at  Secunderabad.  For  the  84th 
regiment,  which  remained  at  that  station  during  the 
whole  year,  lost  in  that  time  no  more  than  thirty-nine 
men  out  of  an  average  strength  of  1,139,  so  that  it«  per 
centage  mortality  was  only  3-42 ;  which  was  below  the 
general  average  of  the  presidency,  and  less  than  half 
the  average  rate  at  Secunderabad  for  fifteen  years 
previously.  It  seems  impossible  to  attribute  these  re- 
markable results  to  any  thing  but  the  abstinent  habits 
of  the  soldiers  of  this  regiment;  a  large  proportion  of 
them  being  total  abstainers^  and  those  who  were  not  go 
being  very  moderate  in  their  consumption  of  alcoholic 
liquors. 

83.  The  comparison  of  the  returns  of  this  regiment 
with  those  of  others  less  remarkable  for  sobriety,  affords 
a  full  confirmation  of  the  dediiCtions  drawn  from  the 
statistics  of  crime  in  this  country,  as  well  as  from  indi- 
vidual observation,  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  habitual 
intemperance  upon  the  moral  conduct.  That  a  large 
proportion  of  offences  amenable  to  punishment,  both  in 
the  civil  population  and  in  the  military  and  naval  ser- 
vices, are  committed  under  the  direct  excitement  of 
alcoholic  liquors,  there  can  be  no  kind  of  doubt ;  and  the 
comparison  of  the  insubordination  and  criminality  of  a 
drinking  regiment  with  the  orderly  and  reputable  conduct 
of  an  abstinent  one,  circumstanced  in  other  respgcts 
almost  precisely  the  same,  adds  to  the  confidence  with 
which  we  may  assert  that  intemperance  is  the  chief 
cause  of  crime.  For,  besides  the  immediate  provocation 
which  alcoholic  excitement  may  induce,  it  is  indubitable 
that  habitual  excess  has  a  tendency  to  debase  the  moral 
tone,  and  to  weaken  the  controlhng  power  of  the  will ;  an 


ON  THE  HEALTHY  SYSTEM. 


91 


^^ 


effect  for  which  the  statements  already  made  as  to  its 
action  on  the  mind,  through  its  organ  the  brain,  leave  us 
at  no  loss  to  account.* 

♦  The  author  is  happy  to  be  able  to  add  the  testimony  of  Col. 
Reid,  who  was  for  some  years  governor  of  the  Bermudas,  and 
subsequently  of  the  Windward  Islands,  in  favor  of  the  beneficial 
effects  of  total  abstinence,  in  improving  the  physical  condition, 
and  in  promoting  the  general  welfare,  of  a  tropical  population 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  Europeans  with  colored  people.  To 
Col.  Rcid  belongs  the  high  credit  of  being  one  of  the  few  indivi- 
duals, occupying  situations  of  high  ofRcial  responsibility,  who 
have  employed  their  influence  in  promoting  this  great  measure  of 
social  reform.  The  author  is  informed  by  him,  that  the  habit 
of  total  abstinence  now  prevails  in  the  Bermudas  to  such  an  extent, 
that  in  some  parishes  there  are  no  public  houses ;  the  feeling  of 
the  people  being  so  much  against  these,  that  no  one  will  come 
forward  to  give  the  collateral  security  which  is  required  from  those 
who  seek  licenses  for  them.  In  the  annual  reports  of  the  gover- 
nors of  colonies  which  are  laid  before  Parliament,  and  published, 
Col.  lleid  speaks  as  follows,  with  reference  to  Barbadoes  :  "  I  en- 
deavored, on  my  first  arrival  here,  to  revive  a  temperance  society 
which  had  been  before  unsuccessfully  attempted.  This  society 
has  now  taken  root  in  the  midst  of  distilleries,  and  promises  to 
effect  a  great  social  revolution  in  West  Indian  habits."  —  Author. 


92 


CHAPTER  n. 

DOES  PHYSIOLOGY  OR  EXPERIENCE  TEACH  US 
THAT  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  SHOULD  FORM  PART 
OF  THE  ORDINARY  SUSTENANCE  OF  MAN,  PAR- 
TICULARLY UNDER  CIRCUMSTANCES  OF  EXPO- 
SURE  TO  SEVERE  LABOR,  OR  TO  EXTREMES  OF 
TEMPERATURE?  OR,  ON  THE  OTHER  HAND,  IS 
THERE  REASON  FOR  BELIEVING  THAT  SUCH  USE 
OF  THEM  IS  NOT  SANCTIONED  BY  THE  PRINCI- 
CIPLES  OF  SCIENCE,  OR  BY  THE  RESULTS  OF 
PRACTICAL  OBSERVATION? 

The  reply  to  this  question  will  be  best  furnished,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer,  by  considering  seriatim  *  how  far 
science  and  experience  lead  to  the  belief,  that  the  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  is  advantageous,  as  fitting  the  system 
for  the  better  endurance,  —  1st,  Of  severe  bodily  exer- 
tion ;  2d,  Of  severe  mental  exertion  ;  3d,  Of  extreme 
cold ;  4th,  Of  extreme  Iieat ;  5th,  Of  morbific  ag'en- 
cies.  From  the  results  of  these  inquiries  it  will  be 
found  not  diflficult  to  draw  deductions  as  to  the  pro- 
priety, or  otherwise,  of  making  alcoholic  liquors  foim 
part  of  the  sustenance  of  man  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. 

I.    ENDURANCE   OF   BODILY   EXERTION. 

85.  All  bodily  exertion  is  performed  by  the  instru- 
mentahty  of  the  muscular  apparatus,  which  is  called 

*  Seriatim,  in  order. 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL,   ETC. 


93 


into  play  by  tlio  agency  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is 
requisite,  therefore,  tliat  we  should  begin  by  inquiring 
into  the  conditions  under  which  their  powers  are  respec- 
tively put  forth ;  and  the  following  may  be  stated  as 
fundamental  positions,  in  which  all  the  most  eminent 
physiologists  are  now  agreed. 

I.  Both  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  require, 
for  the  energetic  development  and  due  maintenance  of 
their  respective  powers,  that  their  tissues  sliall  be  ade- 
quately supplied  with  the  materials  of  growth  and 
regeneration  ;  *  whereby  they  shall  be  able  to  repair 
the  effects  of  the  loss  which  every  exercise  of  their  vital 
endowments  involves ;  and  also  to  develop  new  tissue, 
to  meet  increasing  demands  upon  their  functional  ac- 
tivity. 

II.  The  functional  activity y  both  of  the  nervous  and 
muscular  systems,  involves  the  disintegration  ■\  of  a 
certain  amount  of  their  component  tissues,  by  the  agency 
of  oxygen  :  the  evolution  of  their  peculiar  forces  being 
apparently  dependent  upon  the  return  of  the  living  tissue 
to  the  condition  of  dead  matter,  and  upon  the  union  of 
this  matter  with  the  oxygen  supplied  by  the  blood  ; 
whereby  new  compounds  are  formed,  the  retention  of 
which  in  the  circulating  current  would  be  detrimental 
to  the  vivifying  qualities  of  the  blood,  and  the  continual 
elimination  of  which,  therefore,  is  especially  provided  for. 
Both  these  systems  consequently  require,  as  the  condition 
of  their  highest  activity,  that  they  shall  receive  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  blood  charged  with  oxygen,  and  purified 


♦  liegencration,  new  formation. 

t  Disintegration,  separation  into  parts. 


94 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL 


from  the  contaminating  matters  which  it  has  taken  up  in 
the  course  of  its  circulation  through  the  system. 

III.  For  the  fullest  evolution  of  physical  power,  it  is 
requisite  that  the  muscular  system  should  receive  an 
adequate  excitation  from  the  nervous ;  and  the  amount 
of  muscular  force  put  forth  on  any  occasion  depends, 
cceieris  paribus,*  on  the  degree  of  nervous  power  which 
is  caused  to  operate  on  the  muscles,  —  a  strong  emotional 
excitement,  for  example,  being  sometimes  effectual  in 
accomplishing  that  which  the  will  could  not  effect. 

85.  If  the  nerves  and  muscles  be  inadequately  nour- 
ished, it  is  impossible  that  their  normal  power  can  be 
developed,  except  under  the  influence  of  stimulants,  and 
then  only  for  a  short  time.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
blood  be  imperfectly  charged  with  oxygen,  it  cannot 
supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  that  element  for  the  per- 
formance of  those  chemical  changes  which  are  involved 
in  every  action  of  the  muscular  and  nervous  apparatus. 
And  if,  besides  being  deficient  in  oxygen,  the  blood  be 
charged  with  carbonic  acid,  biliary  matter,  urea,f  or 
other  products  of  the  disintegration  of  the  body,  the 
functional  power  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems 
must  undergo  a  marked  diminution,  in  consequence  of 
the  deleterious  influence  which  such  matters  exert  upon 
their  tissues. 

86.  Now,  it  may  be  accepted  as  an  indubitable  fact  in 
organic  chemistry,  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  relation 
of  composition  between  alcohol  and  muscular  tissue ;  and 
all  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject  tends  to  prove, 

*  Cceteris  paribus,  other  things  being  equal, 
t  Urea,  matter  of  urine. 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


95 


Irove 


that  the  albuminous  *  f  matters  of  the  blood,  which  con- 
stitute the  pabulum  X  of  that  tissue,  cannot  be  generated 
within  the  body  of  man,  or  of  any  other  animal,  but  are 
derived  immediately  from  the  food.  We  cannot  regard 
alcoholic  liquors,  then,  as  contributing  to  the  nutrition  of 
muscular  tissue ;  except  in  so  far  as  they  may  contain 
albuminous  matters  in  addition  to  the  alcohol,  which  is 
especially  the  case  with  "  malt-hquors."  But  these  mat- 
ters would  have  the  same  nutrient  power,  if  they  were 
taken  in  the  form  of  solid  food. 

87.  We  cannot  speak  with  the  same  confidence  in 
regard  to  the  impossibility  of  any  assistance  being  af- 
forded by  alcohol  to  the  nutrition  of  the  nervous  system ; 
since  nervous  matter  is  essentially  composed  of  fatty 
substances,  which,  though  peculiar  as  containing  a  large 
quantity  of  phosphorus,  do  not  seem  to  contain  nitro- 
gen :  II  and  since  alcohol  is  regarded  by  the  chemist  as 
approximating  the  oleaginous  *§>  class  of  substances  in  its 

*  Albuminotis,  nutritious.     The  white  of  egg  is  albumen. 

t  This  term  is  here  used  to  designate  what  are  commonly  known 
as  the  protein  compounds ;  late  researches  ha^Hng  tended  to  show 
the  incorrectness  of  the  basis  on  which  that  appellation  was 
founded.  —  Author. 

X  Pabulum,  food,  nourishing  matter. 

II  It  is  usually  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Fremy,  that  the  fatty 
acids  of  the  nervous  substance  contain  nitrogen.  This,  however,  is 
probably  an  error,  arising  from  the  substance  of  the  brain  or  nerves 
being  submitted  to  analysis  en  masse ;  for  this  substance  consists 
not  merely  of  the  fatty  contents  of  the  cells  and  tubes,  but  of  their 
albuminous  walls  ;  and,  thus  regarded  chemically,  it  is  a  mixture  of 
oleaginous  with  a  small  quantity  of  albuminous  matter,  which  last, 
when  included  in  the  analysis,  would  give  to  the  former  ingredient 
the  appearance  of  containing  azote.  (See  Valentin's  Lehrbuch  der 
Physiologic,  Band  i.  p.  174.)  —  Author. 

§  Oleaffinous,  oily,  fatty. 


96 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


! 


chemical  relations.  But  there  are  two  circumstances 
which  render  it  highly  improbable  that  alcohol  can  ever 
be  converted  into  nervous  matter.  In  the  first  place,  we 
have  no  other  example  of  an  organic  compound  being 
found  applicable  to  the  nutrition  of  the  animal  tissues, 
which  is  the  product  of  incipient  decay  or  decomposi- 
tion ;  yet  this  may  be  affirmed  to  be  the  case  with  alco- 
hol, since  the  alcoholic  fermentation  is  the  first  of  a 
series  of  degrading  changes,  which,  if  allowed  to  con- 
tinue unchecked,  terminates  in  the  putrefactive  process ; 
and  we  can  scarcely  imagine,  therefore,  that  it  can  be  an 
appropriate  material  fo/  the  formation  of  the  most  ac- 
tive and  important  part  of  the  whole  animal  mechanism. 
Again,  we  have  no  other  example  of  the  application  of 
an  organic  compound  to  the  nutrition  of  the  animal  tis- 
sues, which  exerts  upon  any  of  them  such  a  decidedly 
poisonous  influence  in  large  doses,  as  we  have  seen  to  be 
exerted  by  alcohol  (§§  13 — 16).  The  materials  which 
constitute  the  pabula  for  the  several  tissues  are  perfectly 
innocuous  whilst  they  retain  their  normal  constitution ; 
and  their  pretrence  in  the  blood,  in  larger  amount  than 
usual,  though  it  may  in  various  modes  be  a  source  of 
functional  derangement,  never  exercises  any  special  dele- 
terious influence  upon  the  vital  properties  of  the  nervous, 
muscular,  or  any  other  tissue.  On  these  grounds,  then, 
it  may  be  almost  positively  affirmed,  that,  notwithstand- 
ing the  chemical  relation  which  alcohol  bears  to  nervous 
matter,  it  cannot  serve,  either  in  its  original  condition  or 
under  any  other  guise,  as  a  pabulum  for  the  generation 
of  nervous  tissue. 

87.  We  seem  justified  by  the  laws  of  physiology, 
therefore,  in  assuming  that  alcoholic  hquors  cannot  sup- 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


97 


Qstances 
jan  ever 
)lace,  we 
id  being 

tissues, 
jomposi- 
ith  alco- 
rst  of  a 

to  con- 
process  ; 
an  be  an 
most  ac- 
chanism. 
cation  of 
imal  tis- 
lecidedly 
sen  to  be 
Is  which 
perfectly 
titution ; 
mt  than 
ource  of 
;ial  dele- 
nervous, 
ds,  then, 
ithstand- 

nervous 
dition  or 

neration 

jrsiology, 
inqt  sup- 


ply the  first  of  the  requisites  already  enumerated  for  the 
development  of  the  physical  power  of  the  nervous  and 
muscular  apparatus ;  and  we  have  next  to  consider  what 
is  its  capacity  in  regard  to  the  second.  It  may  be  safely 
affirmed,  that  the  introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  blood 
cannot  stand  in  the  place  of  the  oxygen  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  functional  activity  of  the  nervous  and  mus- 
cular systems :  on  the  contrary,  its  presence  in  the  blood 
would  rather  tend  to  impede  the  oxidation  of  their 
organic  components,  both  by  the  more  cogent  demand 
for  oxygen  which  it  will  itself  set  up,  and  also  by  the 
preventive  influence  which  it  is  well  known  to  exercise 
over  the  oxidation  of  other  organic  substances  {^'^  117, 
118).  In  both  these  modes,  it  will  not  only  interfere 
with  that  action  of  the  oxygen  of  the  blood  upon  the 
nervous  and  muscular  substances,  which  is  essential  to 
their  functional  activity ;  but  it  will  also  tend  to  check 
the  removal,  by  oxygenation,  of  those  products  of  de- 
composition whose  continuance  in  the  blood  is  attended 
with  most  serious  injury  to  the  system.  In  so  far,  in 
fact,  as  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  circulating  current 
tends  to  give  to  arterial  blood  a  venous  character,  it  must 
thereby  impair  its  power  of  serving  as  the  e  citing  fluid 
(for  so  we  may  term  it)  of  the  nervous  and  muscular 
battery.  And  this  it  does,  in  the  first  instance,  by 
obstructing  the  ehmination  of  carbonic  acid,  as  will  be 
shown  hereafter  (<§»  118) ;  but  more  remotely  by  that 
interference  with  the  proper  functional  activity  of  the 
liver  and  kidneys,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  among  the 
most  ordinary  consequences  of  the  free  and  liabitual  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors  (§*§•  54 — 58). 

88.  But,  although  we  are  led  by  the  preceding  con- 


08 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


t 


siderations  to  regard  the  regular  employment  of  alco- 
holic liquors  as  rather  a  detriment  than  an  aid  to  the 
development  of  nervo-muscular  power,  there  is  a  third 
point  towards  which  we  have  to  direct  our  inquiry ; 
namely,  whether  the  peculiar  stimulating  effect  of  alco- 
hol, which  is  especially  exerted  upon  the  nervous  system, 
may  not  enable  a  greater  amount  of  nervous  energy  to 
be  produced,  and  a  greater  amount  of  muscular  power 
to  be  thereby  called  forth,  than  could  be  generated 
without  its  aid.  In  considering  this  question,  it  is  most 
important  to  keep  in  view  the  difference  between  a  tem- 
porary and  a  sustained  effort.  We  have  seen  that 
the  usual  effect  of  a  moderate  dose  of  alcohol  is,  in  the 
first  instance,  an  increase  in  the  force  and  rapidity  of 
the  circulation,  and  in  the  activity  and  energy  of  the 
functions  of  the  nervous  system ;  and  both  these  condi- 
tions will  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  muscular 
power,  so  long  as  they  continue.  But  such  a  state 
cannot  long  endure.  We  may  increase  the  amount  of 
nervous  power  developed  in  a  given  time,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  alcoholic  stimulants ;  or  we  may  prolong  its 
generation  by  the  same  kind  of  assistance,  when  it  would 
otherwise  have  failed.  But  as  every  exertion  of  nervous 
power,  like  that  of  muscular,  involves  the  death  and 
decay  of  a  certain  amount  of  the  tissue  by  which  it  is 
evolved,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  possibility  of  its  genera- 
tion ;  so  that  we  find  the  continuance,  or  even  the  in- 
crease, of  the  stimulus  ceasing  after  a  while  to  produce 
any  effect ;  and  the  exhausted  power  can  only  be  recov- 
ered by  a  lengthened  period  of  repose,  which  shall  allow 
time  and  opportunity  for  the  regenerating  processes  to 
he  performed,  at  the  expense  of  nutrient  material  drawn 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   I'OWEIIS. 


99 


from  the  blood.  Until  this  has  been  cfFectually  accom- 
plished, the  nervous  power  is  at  least  as  much  below  par 
as  it  previously  was  above  it ;  so  that  the  loss  is  cer- 
tainly equivalent  to  the  gain.  And  the  more  the  nervous 
system  has  been  forced,  by  the  influence  of  alcoholic 
stimulants,  to  give  forth  its  powers  beyond  their  natural 
limit,  whether  as  to  duration  or  intensity,  the  greater 
will  be  the  degree  and  duration  of  that  subsequent  de- 
pression which  speaks  so  unmistakably  of  the  need  of 
rest  and  reparation. 

89.  Hence,  therefore,  we  should  anticipate,  that,  al- 
though the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  may  enable  a 
greater  amount  of  physical  force  to  be  put  forth  within 
a  given  time  than  could  otherwise  be  generated,  they 
can  be  of  no  assistance  in  the  suslentation  of  nervo- 
muscular  power ;  and,  if  the  previous  considerations  be 
also  taken  into  the  account,  we  should  be  led  to  expect, 
that,  in  the  long-run,  severe  bodily  labor  will  be  better 
borne  without  alcoholic  stimulants  than  with  them,  — 
provided  always  that  the  digestive  apparatus  be  in  good 
working  ord'^r,  and  be  adequate  to  prepare  that  amount 
of  alimentary  material  which  is  required  for  the  regen- 
eration of  the  tissues  disintegi'ated  by  use. 

90.  We  have  now  to  inquire  how  far  the  results  of 
practical  experience  are  coincident  with  these  theoretical 
views;  and  whether  it  is  found,  on  actual  trial,  that 
complete  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquors  is  favorable, 
or  the  reverse,  to  the  endurance  of  severe  bodily  labor. 
It  cannot  be  denied,  that  the  ideas  current,  among  the 
laboring  classes  more  especially,  as  to  the  teachings  f»f 
experience  on  this  point,  are  opposed  to  our  theoretical 
deductions.     But  there  are  many  circumstances  whicli 


100 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


should  lead  us  to  mistrust  the  popular  voice  on  such  a 
question,  and  to  seek  for  proofs  of  a  kind  that  may  be 
more  firmly  relied  on.  The  "universal  experience"  of 
former  generations  might  be  quoted  in  favor  of  a  multi- 
tude of  absurd  notions,  which  we  now  treat  as  simply 
ridiculous ;  and  when  there  is  this  additional  complica- 
tion, that  the  liking  for  alcoholic  liquors  is  such  as  very 
readily  to  make  "  the  wish  father  to  the  thought,"  we  find 
an  additional  ground  for  suspicion.  But  the  chief  cause 
of  our  mistrust  is  this,  —  that  there  is  no  appreciation,  in 
the  popular  mind,  of  the  connection  between  the  immediate 
and  the  remote  effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants.  A  glass 
of  malt-liquor,  or  a  small  quantity  of  spirits,  repeated 
three  or  four  times  a  day,  is  found  to  increase  the  bodily 
vigor  for  a  time;  and  this  increase  is  set  down  as  so 
much  positive  gain,  no  account  being  taken  of  the  sub- 
sequent depression,  which  is  considered  as  ordinary  fa- 
tigue. Evidence  of  this  kind  is  therefore  of  little  or  no 
value ;  and  the  only  facts  that  can  be  admitted  as  having 
any  weight  are  those  which  bring  into  comparison  the 
total  amount  of  labor  executed  with  and  without  the  aid 
of  fermented  hquors,  during  lengthened  periods  of  severe 
toil;  these  being  the  indications;  not  of  the  amount  of 
force  which  may  be  temporarily  set  forth,  but  of  that 
which  can  be  habitually  exerted ;  and  therefore  of  the 
general  vigor  of  the  system,  rather  than  of  its  power  in 
a  state  of  excitement. 

91.  It  would  be  easy  to  cite  several  modern  testi- 
monies to  the  superiority  of  the  abstinence  principle  (to 
8iiy  nothing  of  the  ancient  ones),  from  Benjamin  Franklin 
down  to  Dr.  Forbes ; —the  former  of  whom  tells  us,  in  his 
Autobiography,  that  he  was  accustomed,  when  working 


IN   SU8TAININ(1   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


101 


>) 


of 


as  a  pressman  in  a  London  printing-house,  an<l  takinj^ 
only  bread  and  water  instead  of  the  porter  which  his 
companions  drank  (as  they  said)  to  acquire  strength  for 
their  work,  to  carry  a  large  form  of  letters  in  each  hantl 
up  and  down  stairs,  to  the  astonishment  of  his  porter- 
drinking  companions,  Avho  found  one  of  them  a  sufficient 
load;  whilst  the  latter  assures  us,  that,  in  a  recent 
excursion  amidst  the  mountains  and  valleys  of  Switzer- 
land, which  were  chiefly  traversed  on  foot,  he  found  his 
own  "  sexagenarian  "  vigor,  sustained  by  cold  water  only, 
quite  on  a  par  with  that  of  his  younger  companions,  who 
indulged  in  a  moderate  allowance  of  wine.*  Such 
examples,  however,  might  be  regarded  as  exceptional 
because  individual,  and  as  affording  no  contradiction  of 
the  supposed  general  result  of  experience.  They  prove, 
however,  that  there  is  nothing  positively  incompatible 
in  the  habit  of  total  abstinence  from  alcohohc  liquori 
with  the  sustenance  of  a  high  degree  of  nervo-muscular 
power.  And  it  may  be  well  to  fortify  this  position  Avith 
a  few  additional  testimonies,  relating  to  cases  in  which 
the  power  of  endurance  was  very  severely  tried. 

92.  Thus  a  nail-maker  at  Glasgow  assured  the  wri- 
ter, that,  after  five  years'  experience  of  the  abstinence 
system,  he  "found  hard  work  easier,  and  long  houi-M 
more  readily  to  be  endured;  "  and  that,  being  a  member 
of  the  Fire  Brigade,  he  was  on  one  occasion  called  upon 
for  continuous  exertion  for  seventy-three  hours,  which  he 
endured,  with  no  other  beverage  than  coffee  and  ginger- 
beer,  while  all  his  comrades  were  "beat  and  fell  away."' 
The  following  statement,  forwarded  to  the  writer  from 


*  Physician's  Holiday,  p.  26,  and  passim. 


9* 


102 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOIIOIi 


Leeds,  was  signed  bj  thirty-four  men  engaged  in  la- 
borious employments ;  out  of  whom  twelve  belonged  to 
the  class  whose  occupations  are  commonly  regarded  aa 
peculiarly  trying,  seven  of  them  being  furnace-men  at 
foundries  and  gas-works,  two  of  them  sawyers,  one  a 
whitesmith,  one  a  glass-blower,  and  the  last  a  railway 
guard :  "  We,  the  undersigned,  having  practised  the 
principles  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating  liquors 
during  periods  ranging  from  one  to  ten  years,  and  hav- 
ing, during  that  time,  been  engaged  in  very  laborious 
occupations,  voluntarily  testify,  that  we  are  able  to  per- 
form our  toil  with  greater  ease  and  satisfaction  to  our- 
selves (and,  we  believe,  more  to  the  satisfaction  of  our 
employers  also)  than  when  we  drank  moderately  of  these 
liquors ;  our  general  health  and  circumstances  have  also 
been  considerably  improved."  *  With  regard  to  har- 
vest-work, again,  which  is  extremely  trying  to  the 
strength,  both  from  the  continuity  of  the  exertion  re- 
quired, and  the  heat  of  the  weather  at  the  time  of  its 
performance,  there  is  ample  testimony  that  those  who 
go  through  it  upon  the  abstinence  principle  are  better 
able  to  sustain  it  than  those  who  endeavor  to  support 
their  strength  upon  fermented  liquors ;  and  that,  if  an 
adequate  supply  of  nutritious  food  be  provided  for  them, 
the  former  will  even  increase  in  weight,  whilst  going 
through  this  severe  toil.  In  some  parts  of  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  where  the  "abstinence  system"  is  more 
extensively  practised  than  in  any  other  county  in  Eng- 
land, it  is  the  general  practice  to  get  in  the  harvests 
without  any  allowance  of  fermented  liquors ;  —  many 


*  See  Appendix  B. 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


103 


laborers  who  are  habitually  m(xlerato  drinkers  feeling  the 
benefit  of  the  "  abstinence  system  "  at  such  times. 

93.  The  following  example,  drawn  from  another 
source,  is  of  peculiar  value,  as  showing  the  comparative 
effect  of  the  two  systems  upon  the  same  individuals. 
The  writer  was  acquainted,  some  years  since,  with  a 
gentleman  who  had  been  for  some  years  at  sea  in  the 
merchant  service,  and  who  not  long  previously  had 
commanded  a  vessel  during  a  voyage  from  New  South 
Wales  to  England.  After  passing  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  ship  had  sprung  so  bad  a  leak  as  to  require 
the  continued  labor,  not  merely  of  the  crew,  but  also  of 
the  oflScers  and  passengers,  to  keep  her  afloat  during  the 
remainder  of  her  voyage,  a  period  of  nearly  three  months. 
At  first,  the  men  were  greatly  fatigued  at  the  termina- 
tion of  their  "  spell "  at  the  pumps ;  and,  after  drinking 
their  allowance  of  grog,  would  "  turn  in,"  without  taking 
a  proper  supply  of  nourishment.  The  consequence  was, 
that  their  vigor  was  decidedly  diminishing,  and  their 
feehng  of  fatigue  increasing,  as  might  be  expected  on  the 
principles  already  laid  down.  By  the  directions  of  their 
commander  (who,  although  very  moderate  in  his  own 
habits  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  acquaintance  with  him, 
was  by  no  means  a  disciple  of  the  total-abstinence  school, 
which  renders  his  testimony  the  more  valuable),  the 
allowance  of  grog  was  discontinued,  and  coffee  and  cocoa 
were  substituted  for  it ;  a  hot  "  mess  "  of  these  beverages 
being  provided,  with  the  biscuit  and  meat,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  every  watch.  It  was  then  found  that  the  men 
felt  inchned  for  a  good  meal  of  the  latter,  wiien  the  more 
direct  but  less  effective  refreshment  of  the  alcoholic  liquor 
was  withdrawn ;  their  vigor  returned ;  their  fatigue  di- 


104 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


minished;  and,  after  twelve  weeks  of  incessant  and 
severe  labor  (with  no  interval  longer  than  four  hours), 
the  ship  was  brought  into  port  with  all  on  board  of  her 
in  as  good  condition  as  they  ever  were  in  their  lives. 

94.  Numerous  examples  might  be  cited  of  compara' 
five  trials  between  two  sets  of  laborers,  as  nearly  as 
possible  alike  in  other  respects,  but  the  one  practising 
total  abstinence,  whilst  the  other  has  rehed  upon  the 
assistance  of  alcohohc  liquors.  So  far  as  the  writer  is 
aware,  all  these  contests  have  given  results  in  fcivor  of 
the  abstinence  system,  when  the  period  of  the  experi- 
ment has  been  sufficiently  protracted  to  give  its  merits  a 
fair  trial;  and,  although  it  may  be  asserted  that  such 
results  are  one-sided,  as  having  been  made  known  to  the 
public  by  the  professed  advocates  of  a  system^  yet,  con- 
sidering the  very  large  interests  involved  in  the  main- 
tenance of  the  existing  state  of  things  in  regard  to  the 
use  of  fermented  liquors,  it  might  be  reasonably  expected 
that  their  upholders  would  make  known  to  the  world 
any  results  of  an  opposite  description,  had  they  really 
occurred.  The  following  statement,  furnished  to  the 
writer  by  a  gentleman  at  Uxbridge,  has  the  advantage  of 
being  the  comparative  return  of  the  regular  labor  of  a 
whole  year,  performed  by  two  sets  of  men,  the  one  work- 
ing on  the  "abstinent,"  the  other  on  the  "moderate" 
system,  but  not  pitted  against  each  other  in  a  contest  for 
victory.  It  relates  to  brick-making,  which  is  commonly 
accounted  one  of  the  most  laborious  of  all  out-door  em- 
ployments. "  (^ut  of  upwards  of  twenty-three  milhons 
of  bricks  made  in  1841  by  the  largest  maker  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  average  per  man  made  by  the  beer- 
drinkers  in  the  season  was  760,269 ;  wliilst  the  average 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


105 


for  the  teetotalers  was  795,400,  which  is  35,131  in 
favor  of  the  latter.  The  highest  number  made  by  a 
beer-drinker  was  880,000 ;  the  highest  number  made  by 
a  teetotaler  was  890,000;  leaving  10,000  in  favor  of 
the  teetotaler.  The  lowest  number  made  by  a  beer- 
drinker  was  659,500;  the  lowest  number  made  by  a 
teetotaler  was  746,000 ;  leaving  87,000  in  favor  of  the 
teetotaler.  Satisfactory  as  the  account  appears,  I  believe 
it  would  have  been  much  more  so,  if  the  teetotalers  could 
have  obtained  the  whole  'gang'  of  abstainers;  as  they 
were  very  frequently  hindered  by  the  drinking  of  some 
of  the  gang ;  and,  when  the  order  is  thus  broken,  the 
work  cannot  go  on." 

95.  The  experience  of  large  bodies  of  men,  which 
becomes  matter  of  public  notoriety,  is  in  many  respects 
preferable,  as  demonstrating  (to  say  the  least)  the  per- 
fect compatibility  of  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquora 
with  the  highest  degree  of  physical  vigor,  and  with  the 
greatest  power  of  endurance  of  bodily  labor.  Thus 
almost  every  traveller  who  has  visited  Constantinople  has 
been  struck  with  the  remarkable  muscular  powers  of  the 
men  engaged  in  the  laborious  out-door  employments  of 
that  city.  Mr.  W.  Fairbairn,  an  eminent  machine-maker 
at  Manchester,  remarked  that  "the  boatmen  or  rowers 
to  the  caiques,  who  are  perhaps  the  first  rowers  in  the 
world,  drink  nothing  but  water;  and  they  drink  pro- 
fusely during  the  hot  months  of  summer.  The  boatmen 
and  water-carriers  of  Constantinople  are  decidedly,  in 
my  opinion,  the  finest  men  in  Europe  as  regards  their 
physical  development,  and  they  are  all  water-drinkers."  * 


•  Sanitary  Report,  1840,  p.  252. 


j 


106 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


And  several  other  observers  bear  testimony  to  the  exti-a- 
ordinary  strength  of  the  porters  of  Constantinople,  who 
are  accustomed  to  carry  loads  far  heavier  than  EngUsh 
porters  would  undertake,  even  under  the  stimulus  of 
alcoholic  beverages ;  yet  these  Turkish  porters  never 
drink  any  thing  stronger  than  coffee. 

96.  The  following  statement,  made  upon  the  authority 
of  Mr.  Tremenhere,  one  of  the  commissioners  employed 
to  report  on  the  state  of  the  mining  population,  shoAvs 
how  completely  the  doctrines  of  the  reputedly  "  universal 
experience,"  in  regard  to  the  support  afforded  by  alco- 
holic liquors  to  the  laborious  artisan,  are  negatived  by  the 
results  of  a  change  of  habit,  forced  upon  those  most 
unwilling  to  adopt  it.  "A  remarkable  and  most  satisfac- 
tory instance,"  says  Mr.  T.,  "of  a  successful  attempt  to 
put  a  check  upon  the  indulgence  in  ardent  spirits,  has 
occurred  at  the  iron-works  of  Messrs.  Houldsworth,  of 
Coltness,  employing  about  eight  hundred  colliers,  miners, 
furnace-men,  &c.  Much  loss  and  annoyance  had  fre- 
quently been  occasioned  by  the  negligent  or  wilful  mis- 
conduct of  workmen  under  the  influence  of  this  habit ; 
and  the  Messrs.  Houldsworth,  having  in  vain  endeavored 
to  put  an  end  to  it  by  persuasion  and  advice,  resolved  to 
do  what  they  could  by  removing  the  temptation.  They 
accordingly,  about  three  years  ago,  forbade  the  sale  of 
spirits  at  the  store,  and  at  the  inn  at  their  works,  and 
ordered  that  the  furnace-men  should  not  be  allowed  to 
di'ink  spirits  during  their  hours  of  labor.  These  men 
had  been  accustomed  to  drink  four  or  five  glasses  of 
whiskey  during  each  'shift,'  in  addition  to  what  they 
might  choose  to  drink  at  their  own  homes.  They  remon- 
strated strongly,  and  affirmed  that  it  was  impossible  for 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


107 


them  to  do  their  work  without  this  quantity  of  whiskey. 
They  were  not  long,  however,  before  they  found  their 
error ;  they  now  drink  nothing  but  water  during  their 
work,  and  tea  and  coffee  at  their  meals ;  what  they  spent 
on  whiskey  they  now  spend  in  wholesome  or  nutritious 
food ;  they  allow  that  they  do  their  work  better,  and  that 
the  change  has  been  a  great  blessing  to  themselves  and 
their  families;  and  that  it  is  the  best  thing  that  ever 
happened  to  them.  I  was  afterwards  informed,  that, 
among  the  colliers  and  miners,  there  was  a  marked  im- 
provement from  the  same  cause." 

97.  The  experiment  has  now  been  carried  on  upon  a 
still  larger  scale,  for  many  years,  amongst  the  seamen  of 
the  merchant-service,  both  of  this  country  and  the  United 
States ;  and  the  result  has  been,  with  few  exceptions, 
so  favorable  to  the  abstinence  principle,  that  it  is  now 
adopted  by  a  very  large  proportion  of  American  trading 
vessels ;  to  whose  general  superiority  in  equipment  and 
management  over  the  mercantile  marine  of  this  country, 
in  the  greater  part  of  which  the  employment  of  alcoholic 
liquora  is  still  continued,  a  large  body  of  evidence  was 
recently  given  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  exceptions  just  alluded  to  relate  to  the 
reputed  liability  of . "  temperance"  seamen  to  suffer  from 
endemic*  or  malarious f  diseases.  Into  this  point  we 
shall  inquire  under  a  subsequent  head;  and  the  writer 
thinks  that  it  will  there  appear  that  this  liability,  if  it 
really  exist,  results  from  the  deficiency  of  any  measures 
that  shall  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  alcoholic  stimulus, 


*  Endemic,  arising  from  the  locality, 
t  Malivious,  arising  from  noxious  vapors,  as  from  awamps. 


i  I 


i  [ 


108 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


in  rendering  the  system  less  obnoxious  to  the  influence 
of  the  poisonous  emanations  to  which  it  is  exposed 
{§§  145—147). 

98.  The  writer  has  had  the  opportunity  of  ascertain- 
ing from  ship-owners  who  have  adopted  the  "temperance" 
system  (Avhich,  on  board  ship,  is  equivalent  to  "  total  ab- 
stinence"— no  other  alcoholic  liquor  being  substituted  for 
spirits),  that  they  have  found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
the  services  of  excellent  seamen,  when  a  fair  compensa- 
tion is  made  in  the  superior  quality  of  the  provisions  and 
allowances,  or  in  the  rate  of  wages,  for  the  "  stopping  of 
the  grog."  In  fact,  such  ships  are  in  positive  request 
among  seamen  of  the  best  character;  proving  that,  in 
spite  of  the  well-known  attachment  of  their  class  to 
spirituous  liquors,  they  are  sensible  of  the  advantages  of 
habitual  abstinence  from  them.  The  writer,  having  him- 
self made  a  voyage  to  the  "West  Indies  and  back,  some 
years  since,  in  a  "tempeitmce  ship,"  had  the  opportu- 
nity of  remarking,  that,  during  a  heavy  gale  of  nearly 
three  days'  duration,  which  was  continually  taxing  to  the 
uttermost  the  strength  of  a  crew  far  too  small  for  the  size 
of  the  ship,  the  men  were  at  least  as  ready  for  the  renewal 
of  their  exertions  as  they  would  have  been  if  supported 
by  alcoholic  stimulants ;  whilst  in  various  rowing  matches 
which  took  place  between  them  and  the  crews  of  other 
ships,  whilst  lying  in  port,  they  were  generally  the  victors. 
This  last  fact  is  not  cited  as  proving  the  superiority  of  the 
abstinence  system,  since  the  difference  might  be  attributed 
to  the  superior  physical  power  of  the  crew ;  but  it  suffi- 
ciently indicates  that  there  is  in  the  "  abstinence  system" 
nothing"  unfavorable  to  the  maintenance  of  that  power 
during  the  vicissitudes  of  a  seaman's  life. 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


109 


influence 
exposed 

iscertain- 
perance" 
total  ab- 
ituted  for 
obtaining 
lompensa- 
isions  and 
topping  of 
'^e  request 
g  that,  in 
r  class  to 
antages  of 
Lving  him- 
)ack,  some 
B  opportu- 
of  nearly 
dng  to  the 
for  the  size 
he  renewal 
supported 
ng  matches 
rQ  of  other 
the  victors, 
ority  of  the 
)  attributed 
fut  it  suffi- 
ce system" 
that  power 


99.  The  following  extract  from  a  private  letter  from  a 
captain  in  the  merchant-service,  contained  in  the  "  Ad- 
viser" for  October,  1849,  gives  a  valuable  testimony  in 
favor  of  this  conclusion:  "I  harbored  in  Newfoundland 
on  the  23d  of  December  last,  the  coldest  day  that  had 
been  registered  there  for  the  last  six  years ;  the  thermo- 
meter on  shore  indicating  twenty  degrees  below  zero.  I 
can  honestly  say,  it  was  the  most  severe  frost  I  ever  was 
in  on  the  water,  during  the  twenty-nine  years  that  I  have 
been  employed  in  the  Newfoundland  trade.  I  remained 
on  shore  from  the  time  mentioned  above  until  the  2d  of 
March,  and  then  embarked  for  Bi*azil,  where,  in  April, 
we  had  the  thermometer  ranging  from  80°  to  87°,  and 
remained  in  that  climate  till  the  middle  of  July.  All 
that  time,  the  whole  of  my  crew,  with  two  exceptions, 
were  strictly  teetotal,  and  all  able  to  eat  their  alloAvance, 
and  do  their  share  of  hard  work,  in  the  sun  and  out  of  it, 
taking  in  and  out  cargo.  The  two  exceptions  did,  in  one 
solitary  instance,  infringe  the  law ;  and  they  paid  the 
penalty  in  severe  headache  and  debilitj?  for  some  days.*' 

100.  It  is  rare  for  any  occasion  to  present  itsell,  during 
the  march  of  an  army,  of  testing  the  power  of  sustain- 
ing this  kind  of  prolonged  exertion,  without  the  supposed 
assistance  derived  from  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  but 
opportunities  of  this  kind  have  occurred,  the  abstinence 
having  been  in  some  instances  voluntary,  whilst  in  others 
it  was  compulsory ;  and  the  results  have  in  both  cases 
been  most  completely  confirmatory  of  the  principles  for- 
merly laid  down.  Two  of  the  most  striking  examples 
of  this  kind  within  the  writer's  knowledge  will  be  men- 
tioned hereafter,  under  the  head  of  "Endurance  of  Heat" 

iiese  marches  having  been  performed 


(§^ 


141) 


10 


no 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


under  an  elevation  of  temperature  which  rendered  them 
peculiarly  trying.  And  he  will  here  confine  himself  to 
the  mention  of  the  fact,  that,  during  Sir  John  Moore's 
retreat  to  Corunna,  the  army  was  found  to  improve  in 
health  and  vigor,  as  soon  as  the  usual  allowance  of  spirits 
was  unattainable.  This  fact  is  the  more  remarkable,  as 
the  circumstances  under  which  this  march  was  performed 
must  have  been  peculiarly  depressing  to  the  feelings  of 
the  men,  and  could  not  but  have  operated  unfavorably 
(according  to  the  invariable  experience  of  retreating 
armies)  upon  their  physical  powers. 

101.  The  experience  of  whole  nations,  previously  to 
the  introduction  of  alcohohc  liquors  amongst  them,  is 
equally  in  favor  of  the  assertion,  that  prolonged  and 
severe  muscular  exertion  may  be  at  least  as  well  borne 
without  their  assistance  as  with  it.  Where  for  example, 
shall  we  meet  with  greater  power  of  endurance  of  toil 
than  was  displayed  by  the  North  American  Indians  in 
"  following  a  trail,"  before  their  i*ace  became  deteriorated 
by  European  vices  7 

102.  The  question,  it  may  again  be  remarked  in  con- 
clusion, is  not  to  be  decided  by  the  amount  of  strength 
which  may  be  put  forth  at  a  single  eflfort.  It  may  be 
freely  admitted,  that,  when  the  body  is  exhausted  by 
fatigue,  an  alcoholic  stimulus,  which  excites  the  nervous 
system  to  increased  exertion,  may  impart  a  temporary 
strength,  which  shall  enable  the  next  eflfort  to  be  success- 
ful in  doing  that  which  could  not  have  been  accomphshed 
without  it.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  power 
of  sustahicd  exertion  is  thereby  impaired,  and  that  those 
who  have  habitual  recourse  to  this  stimulus  are  really 
doing  themselves  more  harm  than  good.     This  jvill  be 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


Ill 


most  assuredly  the  case,  when  they  allow  it  to  take  the 
place  of  the  solid  food,  which  their  nervous  and  muscular 
systems  require  for  their  regeneration ;  and  the  tendency 
of  the  habitual  employment  of  alcoholic  liquors,  when  the 
body  has  been  fatigued  with  severe  and  prolonged  muscu- 
lar exertion,  is  generally  to  diminish  rather  than  to  in- 
crease the  desire  for  solid  aliment ;  as  the  examples  above 
quoted  clearly  indicate.  And,  as  it  is  the  latter  alone 
that  can  aflford  real  and  permanent  support,  it  is  obvious 
that  any  habit  which  diminishes  the  natural  disposition  to 
profit  by  it,  must  be  positively  injurious  in  its  influence 
upon  the  bodily  vigor. 


II.     ENDURANCE   OF   MENTAL   EXERTION. 

103.  All  that  has  been  said  of  the  influence  of  alco- 
holic liquors  on  the  development  and  sustentation  of 
physical  force  will  equally  apply  to  mental  power ;  since, 
whatever  may  be  our  views  as  to  the  relation  between 
mind  and  matter,  it  is  not  now  questioned  by  any  phy- 
siologist, that  the  brain  is  the  insirument  by  which  all 
mental  power  is  exercised,  in  man's  present  state  of  ex- 
istence, and  that  the  continued  development  of  this  power 
is  consequently  dependent  upon  those  conditions  which  are 
favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  the  functional  activity  of 
the  nervous  system  in  general.  These  conditions  we  have 
seen  to  be — (I.)  The  healthy  nutrition  of  the  nervous  sub- 
stance; and  (II.)  The  due  supply  of  highly  oxygenated 
and  depurated  blood.  The  former  process  is  certainly  not 
dependent  upon  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  and, 
from  the  considerations  already  urged  (<§>  87),  it  seems  in 
the  highest  degi-ee  improbable  that  they  can  be  of  the 


112 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


i 


! 


least  advantage  to  it.  The  latter  cannot  in  any  degree 
be  improved,  but  must  be  rather  impaired,  by  the  use 
of  fermented  hquors ;  which,  as  already  stated,  tends  to 
deteriornte  the  quality  of  the  blood,  and  to  obstruct  its 
oxygen'  *ion. 

104.  That  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  however,  is 
attended  in  most  persons  with  a  te7}iporary  excitation 
of  mental  activity,  lighting  up  the  scintillations  of  genius 
into  a  brilliant  flame,  or  assisting  in  the  prolongation  of 
mental  effort  when  the  powers  of  the  nervous  system 
would  otherwise  be  exhausted,  may  be  freely  conceded ; 
and  it  is  upon  such  evidence  as  this  that  the  common 
idea  is  based,  that  it  supports  the  system  under  the 
endurance  of  mentul  labor.  This  idea,  however,  is  pro- 
bably as  erroneous  as  the  no  less  prevalent  fallacy  of 
regarding  alcohohc  liquors  as  capable  of  increasing  the 
power  of  physical  exertion.  No  physiological  fact  is 
better  estabhshed  than  that  of  the  depression  of  the  men- 
tal energy  consequent  upon  the  undue  excitement  of  it, 
by  whatever  causes  that  excitement  may  have  been  occa- 
sioned ;  and  the  rapid  and  brilliant  flow  of  thought  which 
may  have  been  called  forth  by  the  alcohohc  stimulants 
gives  place,  usually  after  a  few  hours,  to  the  oj^posite 
state  of  languor  and  despondency. 

105.  The  influence  of  alcoholic  stimulants  seems  to  be 
chiefly  exerted  in  exciting  the  activity  of  the  creating 
and  combining  powers ;  such  as  gives  rise  to  poetical 
imaginations,  to  artistic  conceptions,  or  to  the  sallies  of 
wit  or  humor.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  men 
possessing  such  powers  should  have  recourse  to  alcoholic 
stimulants  as  a  means  of  procuring  a  temporary  exalta- 
tion of  them,  and  of  escaping  from  the  fits  of  depi-ession 


IN   SUSTAINING  THE   VITAL   POWERi?. 


113 


to  which  most  persons  are  subject  in  whom  the  imagina- 
tive and  emotional  tendencies  are  predominant.  Nor  is  it 
to  be  denied  that  many  of  those  mental  productions  which 
are  most  strongly  marked  by  the  inspiration  of  genius 
have  been  thrown  off  under  the  stimulating  influence  of 
alcoholic  liquors.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  depression  consequent  upon  the  high 
degree  of  mental  excitement  which  is  thus  produced  is 
pecuharly  great  in  such  individuals,  completely  destroy- 
ing for  a  time  the  power  of  mental  effort ;  and  hence  it 
does  not  at  all  follow,  that  either  the  authors  of  the  pro- 
ductions in  question,  or  the  world  at  large,  have  really 
benefited  thereby.  Moreover,  it  is  the  testimony  of 
general  experience,  that,  where  men  of  genius  have  habit- 
ually had  recourse  to  alcoholic  stimulants  for  the  excite- 
ment of  their  powers,  they  have  died  at  an  early  age,  as 
if  in  consequence  of  the  premature  exhaustion  of  their 
nervous  energy :  Mozart,  Burns,  and  Byron  may  be  cited 
as  remarkable  examples  of  this  result.  Hence,  although 
their  light  may  have  burned  with  a  brighter  glow,  like  a 
combustible  substance  in  an  atmosphere  of  oxygen,  the 
consumption  of  material  is  more  rapid;  and,  though  it 
may  have  shone  with  a  soberer  lustre  without  such  aid, 
we  cannot  but  believe  that  it  would  have  been  steadier, 
and  less  prematurely  quenched. 

106.  We  do  not  usually  find,  that  the  men  most  distin- 
guished for  that  combination  of  intellectual  powers  which 
is  known  as  talent  are  disposed  to  make  such  use  of 
alcoholic  stimulants  for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  their 
mental  powers ;  for  that  spontaneous  activity  of  the  mind 
itself,  which  it  is  the  tendency  of  alcohol  to  excite,  is  not 
favoraljle  to  the  exercise  of  the  observing  and  purely 
10* 


1 


114 


SUPrOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


reasoning  faculties,  or  to  the  steady  devotemcnt  of  con- 
centrated attention  to  any  subject  which  it  is  desired  to 
investigate  profoundly.  Of  this  we  have  a  remarkable 
illustration  in  the  habits  of  practised  gamblers ;  who, 
when  about  to  engage  in  contests  requiring  the  keenest 
observation  and  the  most  sagacious  calculations,  and  in- 
volving an  important  stake,  always  "  keep  themselves 
cool,"  either  by  entire  abstinence  from  fermented  liquors, 
or  by  the  use  of  those  of  the  weakest  kind  in  very  small 
quantities.  And  we  find  that  the  greatest  part  of  that 
intellectual  labor  which  has  most  extended  the  domain  of 
human  knowledge  has  been  performed  by  men  of  re- 
markable sobriety  of  habit,  many  of  them  having  been 
constant  water-drinkers.  Under  this  last  category,  it  is 
said,*  may  be  ranked  Demosthenes  and  Ilaller ;  Dr. 
Johnson,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  took  nothing 
stronger  than  tea,  while  Voltaire  and  Fontenelle  used 
coffee ;  and  NcAvton  and  Hobbes  were  accustomed  to 
solace,  not  to  excite,  themselves  with  the  fumes  of 
tobacco.  In  recrard  to  Locke,  whose  lonj;  life  was 
devoted  to  constant  intellectual  labor,  and  who  appears, 
independently  of  his  eminence  in  his  special  objects  of 
pursuit,  to  have  been  one  of  the  best-informed  men  of  his 
time,  the  following  very  explicit  and  remarkable  testi- 
mony is  borne  by  one  who  knew  him  well:  "His  diet 
was  the  same  as  other  people's,  except  that  he  usually 
drank  notliinn;  l)ut  water:  and  he  thoudit  that  his  absti- 
nence  in  this  respect  had  preserved  his  life  so  long, 
although  his  constitution  vras  so  Aveak."  | 

*  Macnish's  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  36. 
t  Life  by  Lord  King,  vol.  ii.  p.  60. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


115 


107.    Having,   for  several  years  past,  been  himself 
performing  an  amount  of  steady  mental  labor,  wliich  to 
most  persons  would  appear  excessive,  the  writer  may  be 
allowed  to  refer  to  his  own  experience,  which  is  alto- 
gether in  favor  of  total  abstinence  from  alcoholic  liquors, 
as  a  means  of  sustaining  the  power  of  perfijrming  it. 
Having  been  brought  up  as  a  water-drinker,  he  never 
accustomed   liimself  to   the   habitual   use   of   alcoholic 
liquors ;  scarcely  ever  tasting  them,  except  wlicn  occa- 
sionally led  to  do  so  by  social  influences,  or  Avhen  he 
believed  that  a  small  amount  of  stimulus  would  improve 
the  "tone"  of  his  system,  which  is  liable  to  a  peculiar 
relaxation  in  certain  states  of  the   atmosphere.      On 
determining,  about  four  years  since,  to  give  up  the  oc- 
casional use  of  wine,  o,c.  as  a  social  indulgence,  he  still 
held  himself  free  to  employ  it  when  he  might  think  it 
likely  to  increase  the  general  powers  of  his  system ;  and 
for  some  time  he  continued  to  have  occasional  recourse 
to  alcoholic  stimulants  (never  exceeding  a  single  gjass  of 
wine,  or  lialf  a  tumbler  of  bitter  ale),  when  he  felt  him- 
self suffering  under  the  peculiar  depression  just  referred 
to.     He  gradually,  however,  found  reason  to  doubt  the 
utility  of  tlic  remedy,  and  has  for  the  last  two  years 
entirely  given  it  up.     During  these  two  years,  he  has 
gone  tlnonu'h  a  larger  amount  of  mental  labor  than  he 
ever  did  Ix'fore  in  the  same  period  of  time ;  and  he  does 
not  hesitate  to  say,  that  he  has  performed  i^  with  more 
ease  to  liiiuH^elf  than  on  his  former  system,  and  that  he 
has  been  iiioro  free  than  ever  from  tliosc  states  of  depres- 
sion of  mental  energy  which  he  Avas  accustomed  to  regfird 
as  indicating  the  need  of  a  temporary  support  to  antago- 
nize tlic  depressing  cause.     In  fact,  he  now  finds,  that, 


116 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL 


when  these  do  occur,  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants, 
taken  even  in  very  small  amount,  is  decidedly  injurious 
to  him ;  diminishing  rather  than  increasing  his  power  of 
mental  exertion  at  the  time,  and  leaving  him  still  less 
disposed  for  it  after  their  effect  has  gone  off.  He  attri- 
butes this  change  to  his  entire  disuse  of  alcoholic  liquors 
under  all  other  circumstances ;  and  he  cannot  but  beheve, 
that  the  results  which  ho  now  experiences,  and  which 
have  led  him  to  relinquish  these  stimulants  altogether, 
are  the  natural  effect  of  them  upon  the  healthy  system ; 
and  that  the  benefit  which  some  persons  consider  them- 
selves as  deriving  from  their  use,  arises  from  their  simply 
removing  for  a  time  the  depression  which  results  (at  a 
long  interval,  it  may  be)  from  tlieir  previous  employ- 
ment. 

108.  Two  remarkable  cases  have  recently  fallen  within 
the  author's  knowledge,  in  which  individuals  leading  a 
hfe  of  considerable  intellectual  exertion,  and  long  habitu- 
ated to  the  moderate  use  of  stimulants,  have  derived 
considerable  benefit  from  their  relinquishment.  In  one 
of  these  cases,  a  pint  of  ale  was  the  usual  daily  allow- 
ance ;  to  which  a  little  spirits  and  water  at  night  was 
occasionally  added.  The  relinquishment  was  commenced 
as  an  experiment,  and  without  any  intention  of  perse- 
vering should  it  not  succeed ;  but  the  benefit  has  been 
so  great  that  the  abstinence  has  been  subsequently  con- 
tinued as  a  settled  practice.  This  gentleman  not  only 
finds  his  general  health  improved,  but  declares  that  his 
power  of  intellectual  exertion  is  much  greater  than 
formerly ;  and,  in  particular,  that  he  finds  himself  quite 
fresh  and  ready  for  work  in  the  morning,  instead  of 
losing  time,  as  formerly,  in  bringing  himself  up  to  the 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWiiUH. 


117 


point  at  wliicli  ho  left  off  the  night  hefor  j.  In  the  other 
instance,  the  usual  daily  allowance  was  from  two  to  four 
glasses  of  wine ;  and  this  was  affirmed  to  l)e  necessary  to 
keep  dotrn  a  state  of  mental  excitement  to  which  the 
individual  was  sulyect,  and  to  hracc  the  mind  to  steady 
exertion.  Failing  health,  however,  having  occasioned  a 
recourse  for  a  time  to  the  hydropathic  treatment,  this 
gentleman,  on  returning  in  a  state  of  renewed  vigor  to 
his  usual  avocations,  wisely  determined  to  persevere  in 
the  disuse  of  stimulants ;  and  he  has  since  continued 
to  pmctise  the  abstinent  system,  with  great  benefit  to 
his  bodily  and  mental  health. 

109.  Even  if  we  admit,  however,  that  a  certain  amount 
of  mental  laljor  may  be  performed  with  more  facility  in  a 
limited  time  under  the  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants, it  is  still  questionable,  whether  we  do  not,  on  the 
whole,  rather  lose  than  gain  by  their  employment.  For, 
if  they  cannot  afford  pabulum*  for  the  fomiation  of 
nervous  matter,  and  if  their  influence  is  exerted  rather 
in  producing  its  disintegration  than  its  growth,  its  de- 
struction rather  than  its  construction,  it  follows  that 
every  excess  of  exertion  performed  under  their  influence 
must  be  followed  by  a  corresp;">ndingly  long  period  of 
incapacity,  during  which  the  regenerating  processes  have 
to  be  performed,  and  the  brain  again  fitted  for  the  dis- 
charge of  its  duties ;  and,  if  it  should  be  forced  into  acti- 
vity before  this  renovation  has  been  duly  performed,  the 
amount  of  stimulus  required  to  bring  it  up  to  the  working 
point  will  be  greater,  and  all  the  consequent  evils  in- 
creased.   These  theoretical  predictions  are,  it  is  believed, 


♦  Pabulum,  food,  material  of  growth. 


118 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


II 


in  full  accordance  with  what  observation  teaches  with 
respect  to  the  results  of  rehance  upon  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants for  support  during  mental  labor ;  although,  for 
obvious  reasons,  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  the  same 
pointed  and  decisive  evidence  on  this  topic  a«  in  regjird 
to  the  endurance  of  physical  exertion,  or  of  extremes  of 
temperature.  But  it  is  frequently  urged,  that  although 
the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  to  produce  a  stimulating 
action  upon  the  brain  is  injurious,  yet  that  bencifit  is 
derived  from  the  employment  of  a  quantity  sufficient 
to  stimulate  the  stomach  to  the  proper  discharge  of  its 
duties,  by  digesting  that  amount  of  food  which  the 
system  requires,  but  which  the  exhaustion  of  nervous 
power  prevents  it  from  duly  appropriating.  This  doc- 
trine, which  equally  applies  to  the  state  of  imperfect 
indigestion  resulting  from  other  causes,  will  be  better 
considered  when  we  have  inquired  into  the  reputed  effi- 
ciency of  alcoholic  liquors  in  supporting  the  system 
under  exposure  to  the  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  to 
which  question  we  have  next  to  proceed. 


III.     ENDURANCE   OF   COLD. 


110.  The  power  of  alcoholic  liquors  to  enable  the  kxly 
to  resist  the  depressing  influence  of  external  cold,  is  per- 
haps the  best  established  of  all  its  attributes,  not  merely 
in  the  estimation  of  the  uninformed  public,  but  in  the 
opinion  of  those  who  have  scientifically  considered  the 
question.  This  is  by  no  means  surprising.  The  genial 
warmth  which  is  experienced  for  a  time,  when  a  glass  of 
spirits  is  taken  on  a  cold  day,  appears  to  affijrd  uimiis- 
takable  evidence  of  its  heat-producing  power ;  and*  the 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL   POWERS. 


119 


chemical  properties  of  alcohol  would  seem  to  indicate, 
that,  under  such  circumstances,  it  does  not  merely  act  as 
a  stimulant,  increasing  the  activity  of  the  circulation,  and 
augmenting  the  nervous  energy,  but  that  it  also  affords 
the  material  for  that  combustive  process  by  which  the 
heat  of  the  body  is  sustained  in  a  form  peculiarly  suita- 
ble for  rapid  and  energetic  appropriation  to  this  purpose. 
The  authority  of  Liebig  is  continually  quoted  in  support 
of  this  view ;  but  more  has  been  built  upon  his  state- 
ments than  they  legitimately  support.  For  his  argu- 
ments are  rather  directed  to  prove  that  alcohol  cannot 
become  a  pabulum  for  the  tissues,  and  that  its  sole  use, 
therefore,  must  be  in  maintaining  the  temperature  of  the 
body  by  the  combustive  process,  than  to  show  that  it 
is  superior  to  other  materials,  to  whose  employment,  as 
they  exert  no  stimulating  influence,  the  objection  raised 
against  alcohol  cannot  apply.  That  we  may  place  this 
question  upon  its  proper  basis,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consider  the  circumstances  under  which  the  combustive 
process  is  usually  carried  on. 

111.  That  the  maintenance  of  animal  heat  is  chiefly, 
at  least,  dependent  upon  the  union  of  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  certain  materials  contained  in  the  blood, 
with  oxygen  taken  in  by  the  lungs ;  and  that  the  non- 
azotized*  ingredients  of  the  food  are  specially  appro- 
priated to  this  purpose,  —  are  positions  in  which  there  is 
now  such  a  general  agreement  amongst  physiologists,  that 
they  may  be  assumed  as  a  basis  for  our  further  inquiries. 
The  non-azotized  ingredients  of  ordinary  food  may  be 
grouped  under  two  heads, — the  saccharine -f  and  the 

*  Non-azotized,  containing  no  nitrogen, 
t  Saccharine,  sweet,  sugary. 


120 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


oleag'inoiis  ;  the  former  including  all  those  farinaceous 
matters  which  can  be  converted  into  sugar,  and  the  latter 
consisting  of  oil  and  fat  in  every  form.  The  former  may 
be  considered  as  hydrates  of  carbon ;  *  their  proportion- 
als of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  being  such  as  to  form  water ; 
so  that  in  combustion  they  will  only  consume  as  much 
oxygen  as  will  convert  their  carbon  into  carbonic  acid. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  latter 
is  comparatively  small ;  so  that  in  combustion  they  re- 
quire as  much  as  will  not  only  convert  their  carbon  into 
carbonic  acid,  but  will  also  unite  with  that  part  of  the 
hydrogen  for  which  no  equivalents  of  oxygen  previously 
exist  in  the  compound.  Thus,  an  equivalent  of  starch 
consists  of  12  carbon,  9  hydrogen,  and  9  oxygen ;  whilst 
an  equivalent  of  stearine,  the  basis  of  the  soUd  fats,  consists 
of  136  carbon,  132  hydrogen,  and  10  oxygen.  Multiply- 
ing the  numbers  of  the  former  by  llf,  so  as  to  bring  them 
better  into  comparison  with  the  latter,  f  we  find  that  — 

lis  equiv.  of  starch     =  140  carbon,  105  hydrogen,  105  oxygen. 
1    equiv.  of  stearine  =136  carbon,  132  hydrogen,     10  oxygon. 

Now,  in  the  former  case,  the  number  of  equivalents  of 
oxygen  necessary  for  the  conversion  of  the  starch  into 

*  Hydrates  of  carbon,  compounds  of  carbon  with  hydrogen. 

t  We  thus  make  the  sum  total  of  the  weights  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  very  nearly  the  same  in  the  two  cases ;  for 

140  equiv.  of  carbon       (140  X  6)  =  840 
and  105  equiv.  of  hydrogen  (105  X  1)  =  105 


whilst  136  equiv.  of  carbon       (136  X  6) 
and  132  equiv.  of  hydrogen  (132  X  1) 

[AUTHOK.] 


945 

816 
132 

948' 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


121 


laceous 
e  latter 
er  may 
)ortion- 
water ; 
;  much 
ic  acid, 
le  latter 
hey  re- 
jon  into 

of  the 
iviously 
r  starch 

whilst 
consists 
iultiply- 
ng  them 
hat  — 

5  oxygen. 

0  oxygon. 

alents  of 
Tch  into 

ogen. 
irbon  and 

3 
5 


carbonic  acid  and  water  will  be  no  more  than  that  required 
for  the  change  of  its  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  namely 
(140  X  2  =)  280 ;  but,  in  the  latter  case,  the  number 
required  will  not  be  merely  that  which  will  convert  the 
136  eq.  of  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  namely  (136  X  2  =) 
272 ;  but  also  that  required  for  combination  Avith  those 
122  equivalents  of  hydrogen,  for  which  no  equivalent  of 
oxygen  exists  in  the  compound,  making  in  all  (272  -|- 
122  =)  394.  A  much  more  energetic  combustive  pro- 
cess is  required,  therefore,  for  the  conversion  of  stearine 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  than  for  effecting  the  same 
conversion  upo"  starch;  for  not  only  is  the  quantity 
of  free  oxygen  "o  xoaeA  much  larger,  but  the  amount  of 
heat  generated  j-  e  much  greater;  since  much  more 
heat  is  produced  by  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  thin 
by  that  of  carbon. 

112.  Now,  the  atomic  composition  of  alcohol  being  4 
equivalents  carbon,  6  eq.  hydrogen,  and  2  eq.  oxygen,  it 
is  intermediate,  in  regard  to  its  proportion  of  oxygen, 
between  the  farinaceous  and  the  oleaginous  substances; 
bearing,  however,  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  latter,  in 
regard  to  the  large  proportion  of  hydrogen  for  which  it 
does  not  contain  an  equivalent  of  oxygen.  This  will  be 
best  seen  by  multiplying  the  equivalent  of  alcohol  by  31| , 
which  will  bring  the  total  weight  of  its  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen exactly  to  the  same  figure  with  that  of  11 1  of 
starch.* 

314  equiv.  of  alcohol  =  126  carbon,  189  hydrogen,  63  oxygon. 


*  For  126  equivalents  of  carbon  (126  X  6) 
and  189  equivalents  of  hydrogen 


11 


[Author.] 


7o6 

189 

no 


122 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


Thus,  then,  in  the  combustion  of  this  amount  of  alcohol, 
there  will  not  merely  be  required  (126  X  2  =)  252 
equiv.  of  oxygen,  for  the  conversion  of  its  carbon  into 
carbonic  acid;  but  as  (189  —  63)  126  equivalents  of 
hydrogen  exist  in  the  compound  without  any  equivalent 
of  oxygen,  that  number  of  equivalents  of  oxygen  will  be 
required  to  convert  all  the  hydrogen  into  water,  making 
in  all  (252  +  126  =)  378.  This  amount  is  not  far 
from  that  required  by  an  equivalent  quantity  of  ^tearine ; 
and,  as  a  much  larger  proportion  of  it  is  consumed  by  the 
hydrogen,  it  is  obvious  that  the  heat  produced  must  be 
greater  than  that  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  an  equal 
weight  of  hydro-carbon  contained  in  the  latter. 

113.  Considered,  therefore,  merely  in  the  light  of /we/, 
alcohol  is  superior  to  oleaginous  substances,  whilst  it  is 
of  far  higher  value  than  any  substance  of  the  saccharine 
group ;  and  of  this  the  chemist  is  practically  aware,  for 
he  finds  that  a  spirit-lamp  gives  more  heat  than  an  oil- 
lamp.  Were  the  human  body  simply  a  lamp  or  a  fur- 
nace, therefore,  we  should  have  no  room  for  doubt  as  to 
the  efiiciency  of  alcohol  in  maintaining  its  heat ;  and  it  is 
because  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  vital  functions 
is  too  much  disregarded,  its  share  in  the  mere  chemical 
process  of  combustion  being  too  exclusively  kept  in  view, 
that  notions  are  entertained  of  its  value,  which  are  con- 
tradicted by  lengthened  and  extended  experience.  This 
will  be  best  understood,  if  we  examine,  in  the  first 
instance,  into  the  circumstances  under  which  other  non- 
azotized  substances  taken  in  as  food  are  made  to  contri- 
bute to  the  maintenance  of  heat. 

114.  Of  such  substances,  a  certain  amount  is  usuallv 
circulating  in  the  blood.     All  analyses  indicate  the  ex- 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


12a 


istence  of  fatty  mattei*s  in  that  fluid :  their  proportion, 
however,  varies  considerably,  being  much  greater  after  a 
full  meal,  of  which  oleaginous  matters  have  formed  a  part. 
Although  the  amount  is  usually  not  too  large  to  be  held 
in  solution  l)y  the  alkali  of  the  blood,  yet  the  serum  of 
blood,  drawn  within  a  few  hours  after  such  a  meal,  is 
usually  found  to  be  rendered  opa(j[ue  or  milky,  by  the 
presence  of  an  unusual  quantity  of  oleaginous  particles 
suspended  in  it,  in  a  siate  of  very  fine  division.  These, 
however,  gradually  diminish  in  amount;  and,  in  a  few 
hours  more,  the  serum  becomes  clear  again,  indicating 
that  these  particles  have  been  in  some  way  disposed  of. 
This,  we  can  scarcely  doubt,  is  the  consequence  of  their 
having  been  "burned  off"  by  the  respiratory  process, 
which  is  every  hour  carrying  away  at  least  one-third  of 
an  ounce  of  carbon  from  the  blood.  The  evidence  that 
the  saccharine  elements  of  the  food  are  used  up  in  the 
respiratory  process  with  equal  rapidity  is  not  quite  so 
distinct ;  since  these  elements  appear  to  be  usually  intro- 
duced into  the  blood  in  the  condition  of  lactic  acid,*  the 
detection  of  which  is  attended  with  some  uncertainty. 
But  it  has  been  sufficiently  proved,  that,  when  the  sac- 
charine ingredients  of  the  food  are  unusually  abundant, 
they  enter  as  such  into  the  blood,  where  they  may  be 
detected  shortly  after  a  meal,  especially  if  that  meal  have 
been  preceded  by  a  long  fast.  Like  the  superfluous  fiitty 
matters,  however,  they  soon  disappear  ;  being  carried  oft", 
there  can  be  little  doubt,  by  the  respiratory  process. 

115.  In  this  manner,  then,  the  heat-producing  mate- 
rials are  usually  supplied  to  the  system  from  meal  to 


*  Lactic  acid,  acid  of  milk. 


124 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


meal ;  the  greater  part  of  them  being  destined  for  ehmi- 
nation  from  the  blood  within  a  short  time  after  their 
admission  into  it ;  and  the  power  of  sustaining  heat  exist- 
ing in  its  greatest  vigor,  only  whilst  some  of  them  remain 
unconsumed.  This  inference  is  confirmed  by  ordinary 
experience ;  for  every  one  knows  how  much  more  severely 
cold  is  felt  after  a  fast  of  some  hours'  duration  than  after 
a  full  meal.  We  are  accustomed  to  refer  the  difference 
to  the  condition  of  the  stomach ;  but  the  stomach  may 
have  been  emptied  by  the  completion  of  the  digestive  pro- 
cess long  before  the  increased  susceptibility  to  cold  com- 
mences ;  so  that  it  would  be  more  correct  to  refer  this 
increase  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  supply  of  combustive 
material  last  introduced  into  the  blood,  than  to  the  vacuity 
of  the  stomach.  That  an  increase  in  the  power  of  main- 
taining heat  should  be  almost  immediately  produced  after 
the  ingestion  of  food  into  the  stomach,  is  to  be  accounted 
for,  not  merely  by  that  augmented  activity  and  energy  of 
the  general  circulation  which  accompanies  the  digestive 
process,  but  also  by  the  rapidity  with  which  nutrient 
matters  find  their  way  into  the  blood ;  the  turbidity  of  the 
serum,  consequent  upon  the  introduction  of  fatty  sub- 
stances, having  been  observed  as  early  as  half  an  hour 
after  the  meal  of  which  they  have  formed  part.* 

116.  The  admission  of  these  matters  into  the  current 
of  the  circulation  cannot  be  discovered  to  produce  any 
effect  upon  the  system  in  general,  otherwise  than  by 
sustaining  the  temperature  of  the  body.  In  fact,  they 
seem  to  be  the  legitimate  pabulum  for  the  combustive 

*  See,  for  the  oxperimonts  on  which  several  of  the  foregoing 
statements  aro  founded,  the  paper  of  Drs.  Buchanan  and  II.  I). 
Thomson  in  the  Medical  Gazette,  Oct.  10,  1845. 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL  POWERS. 


125 


process,  just  as  albuminous  matters  constitute  the  pabu- 
lum for  the  formative  processes  whereby  the  tissues 
are  generated.  When  they  are  present  in  excess,  the 
superfluity  is  withdrawn  by  the  production  of  adiix)se  * 
tissue,  which  stores  up  the  fatty  mat+^^rs  for  future  use. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  th  j^.^  's  not  c(iuivaleiit 
to  the  consumption  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
heat  of  the  body,  the  fatty  matters  which  are  among 
the  normal  constituents  of  the  blood  are  first  drawn 
upon;  and,  as  the  proportion  of  these  is  diminished,  it 
is  supplied  from  the  contents  of  the  cells  of  adipose 
tissue.  In  this  manner,  the  animial  temperature  is  kept 
up  nearly  to  its  usual  standard,  even  in  spite  of  the  total 
deprivation  of  food,  so  long  as  unconsumed  fatty  matter 
remains  in  the  body ;  but  death  then  speedily  takes 
place,  in  consequence  of  the  coohng  of  the  body,  unless 
the  temperature  be  sustained  by  external  warmth.  And 
death  may  result  also  from  the  subjection  of  the  body  to 
a  very  low  temperature,  whilst  there  is  still  much  fatty 
matter  left  in  the  tissues  ;  as  if  this  matter  could  not  be 
re-introduced  into  the  circulating  current  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  supply  the  demand  for  an  extraordinary 
quantity  of  heat-producing  pabulum.  Further,  when 
the  store  of  fatty  matter  has  been  entirely  exhausted, 
and  the  animal  has  nothing  whatever  to  fall  back  upon, 
it  is  requisite  that  the  supplies  of  new  material  intro- 
duced into  the  system  should  suffer  no  intermission ;  for, 
immediately  that  they  are  exhausted,  the  temperature  of 
the  body  begins  to  fall,  and  death  speedily  supervenes 
unless  a  fresh  supply  be  aflforded.f 

*  Adipose,  fatty, 
t  For  the  experiments  on  which  the  foregoing  statements  arc 
11* 


126 


SUPPOSED  USES  or  ALCOHOL 


117.  We  are  now  prepared,  then,  to  inquire  into  the 
question,  how  far  alcohol  may  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed habitually  as  a  heat-producing  material ;  and 
whether  there  are  any  peculiar  or  extraordinary  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  others.  And, 
as  one  means  of  arriving  at  the  truth  on  this  point,  we 
must  examine  more  particularly  into  the  influence  of  the 
introduction  of  alcohol  into  the  blood,  upon  the  respira- 
tory process.  For  our  knowledge  upon  this  point,  we 
are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  experiments  of  Br.  Prout 
and  to  Vierordt.  The  former  states,*  that  alcohol,  and 
all  liquors  containing  it,  which  he  had  tried,  have  the 
remarkable  power  of  diminishing  the  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  f  in  the  expired  air  much  more  than  any 
thing  else  which  he  had  made  the  subject  of  experiment ; 
this  effect  being  most  decided  when  the  liquor  was  taken 
upon  an  empty  stomach.  The  latter  |  fully  confirms 
Dr.  Front's  observations ;  having  found,  that,  in  four 
experiments,  tlie  per  centage  of  carbonic  acid  fell,  after 
from  half  to  a  whole  bottle  of  wine  had  been  taken,  from 
4'54  to  401 ;  and  that  this  effect  lasted  between  one  and 
two  hours.  He  fiirther  found,  that,  when  he  drank  wine 
with  his  diimer,  the  usual  increase  in  the  per  centage 
of  carbonic  acid  expired  after  a  full  meal  did  not  take 
place. 

118.  These  facts  are  of  great  importance.  For,  al- 
though it  may  be  very  possible,  that,  as  suggested  by 


founded,  see  the  work  of  M.  Cho8sat,  entitled  «•  Rechcrches  sur 
rinanition." 

*  Annals  of  Philosophy,  vols.  ii.  and  iv. 

t  Carbonic  acid  gas,  composed  of  carbon  united  with  oxygen. 

X  Physiologic  des  Athmens,  &c 


I    I 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


127 


Liebig,  the  increased  formation  of  water,  which  Avill 
occur  when  alcohol  is  the  combustivc  material,  compen- 
sates for  the  diminution  in  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
expired,  and  thus  the  normal  amount  of  heat  may  be 
generated;  yet  there  are  clear  indications,  tliat,  when 
thus  present  in  the  blood,  with  other  materials  which 
ought  to  be  excreted,  alcohol  exerts  an  injurious  influ- 
ence, by  retarding  their  combustion.  This  it  will  do  in 
two  ways :  first,  by  taking  their  place  as  the  more  readily 
combustible  material ;  and,  secondly,  in  virtue  of  the 
antiseptic  *  influence  which  it  exerts  upon  other  sub- 
stances, preventing  or  retarding  chemical  changes  in 
them.  That  such  is  the  case  appears  from  the  experi- 
mei^.ts  of  Bouchardat ;  who  found,  that,  when  alcohol  is 
introduced  into  the  system  in  excess,  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  presents  the  aspect  of  venous  blood,  showing 
that  it  has  been  prevented  from  undergoing  the  proper 
oxygenating f  process.  J  And  the* experiments  of  Dr. 
Prout  aflford  additional  support  to  this  conclusion ;  for  he 
observed,  that  no  sooner  had  the  effects  of  the  alcohol 
passed  off  ||  (which  they  did  in  his  case  with  frequent 
yawnings,  and  a  sensation  as  if  he  had  just  awoke  from 
sleep),  than  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  rises 


*  Antiseptic,  preventing  putrefaction. 

t  Oxi/ffenatinff,  supplying  with  oxygen,  vit.alizing. 

J  This  result  has  been  also  noticed  as  a  consequence  of  the 
inhalation  of  the  vapors  of  ether  and  of  chloroform,  which  are 
^ied  to  alcohol  in  composition  and  properties ;  and,  in  cases  in 
wnlch  the  state  of  anaisthesia  has  been  very  profound,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  has  undergone  a  considerable  depression.  — 

AUTHOK. 

II  Sailors  can  generally  tell  when  the  "  grog  is  out  of  them."  — 
Author. 


128 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


7nitch  above  the  natural  standard ;  thus  giving,  it  would 
seem,  unequivocal  evidence  of  the  previous  abnormal 
retention  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  the  system. 

119.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  then,  we  may 
conclude,  that  the  effects  of  alcohol,  as  a  heat-producing 
material,  will  only  be  advantageously  experienced,  when 
the  blood  does  not  contain  a  supply  of  other  matters 
waiting  for  removal  by  the  respiratory  pro^oss ;  and  this, 
we  believe,  will  be  found  entirely  conformable  to  expe- 
rience ;  the  greatest  assistance  being  derived  from  it, 
when  the  body  is  exposed  for  a  time  to  severe  cold,  after 
a  long  previous  fast,  and  when,  for  the  reasons  already 
given,  the  heat-producing  power  is  much  less  than  usual, 
even  although  there  should  be  no  lack  of  material  stored 
up  in  the  body.  Tliis  is  well  illustrated  by  the  follow- 
ing incident,  which  Dr.  Macnish  relates  of  himself:  * 
"  I  was  travelling  on  the  top  of  the  Caledonian  Coach, 
during  an  intensely  cold  day,  towards  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber, 1821.  We  left  Inverness  at  five  in  the  morning, 
when  it  was  nearly  pitch  dark,  and  when  the  thermome- 
ter probably  stood  at  18°  Fahr.  I  was  disappointed  of 
an  inside  seat,  and  was  obliged  to  take  one  on  the  top, 
where  there  were  nine  outside  passengers  besides  myself, 
mostly  sportsmen  returning  from  their  campaigns  in  the 
moors.  From  being  obliged  to  get  up  so  early,  and 
without  having  taken  any  refreshment,  the  cold  was 
truly  dreadful,  and  set  fear-noughts,  fur-caps,  and  ho- 
siery alike  at  defiance.  So  situated,  and  whn-ling  along 
at  the  rate  of  nearly  nine  miles  an  hour,  with  a  keen  east 
wind  blowing  upon  us  from  the  snow-covered  hills,  I  do 


*  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  307. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


120 


not  exaggerate  when  I  say,  that  some  of  us,  at  least, 
oweil  our  lives  to  ardent  spirits.  The  cold  was  so  insuf- 
ferable, that,  on  arriving  at  the  first  stage,  we  were 
nearly  frozen  to  death.  Our  feet  were  jterfectly  be- 
numbed ;  and  our  hands,  fortified  as  they  were  with 
warm  gloves,  little  better.  Under  such  circumstjmces, 
we  all  instinctively  called  for  spirits,  antl  took  a  glass 
each  of  raw  whiskey  and  a  little  bread.  The  effect  wiis 
perfectly  magical :  heat  diffused  itself  over  the  system, 
and  we  continued  comparatively  warm  and  comfortable 
till  our  arrival  at  Aviemore  Inn,  Avhere  we  breakfasted. 
This  practice  was  repeated  several  times  during  the 
journey,  and  always  Avith  the  same  good  effect.  When 
at  any  time  the  cold  became  excessive,  we  had  recourse 
to  our  dram,  Avhich  insured  us  warmth  and  comfort  for 
the  next  twelve  or  fourteen  miles,  without  on  any  occa- 
sion producing  the  slightest  feeling  of  intoxication.  Nor 
had  the  spirits  which  we  took  any  bad  effects  either  upon 
the  other  passengers  or  myself.  On  the  contrary,  we 
were  all,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  much  the  better  for  it ; 
nor  can  there  be  a  doubt,  that,  without  spirits  or  some 
other  stimulating  liquor,  the  consequences  of  sueh  severe 
weather  would  have  been  highly  prejudicijd  to  most  of  us." ' 
This  last  statement  cannot  be  admitted  without  an  im- 
portant reservation,  sufficient  to  invalidate  any  inference 
drawn  from  this  or  similar  cases  as  to  the  iiecessity  for 
alcoholic  liquors  for  the  maintenance  of  the  animal  heat 
under  exposure  to  severe  cold.  For  it  will  be  observed, 
that  the  party  started  on  their  journey  after  a  fast  of 
several  hours,  no  food  having  been  iaken  that  morning ; 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  that,  if  Dr.  Mac- 
nish  and  his  companions  had  breakfasted  heartily  before 


130 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL 


the  commencement  of  their  journey,  they  would  not  have 
found  it  necessary  to  have  had  such  frequent  recourse  to 
the  spirit-bottle ;  easily  digested  solid  food,  es[)ecially 
such  as  includes  oleaginous  matter,  taken  in  conjunction 
with  hot  liquids  (especially  coffee),  being  at  least  as 
efficacious,  as  a  heat-producing  material,  as  alcoholic 
liquors  can  be.  In  proof  of  this  assertion,  we  shall  noAv 
cite  a  series  of  facts  which  are,  we  conceive,  quite  ade- 
quate to  demonstrate  it. 

120.  In  the  first  place,  the  author  may  relate  his  own 
experience  of  a  journey  performed  on  the  outside  of  a 
stage-coach  from  Exeter  to  Bristol,  on  the  20th  of  Ja- 
nuary, 1838 ;  a  day  memorable  for  the  severity  of  its 
temperature,  and  for  that  remarkable  prediction  of  the 
occurrence  which  gave  a  temporary  celebrity  to  "  Mur- 
phy's Almanac."  The  traveller,  as  in  the  preceding 
case,  was  "  whirled  along  at  the  rate  of  nearly  nine  miles 
an  hour"  (which,  in  these  days  of  railroad  speed,  must 
be  accounted  but  a  snail's  :  ace) ;  and,  though  not  ex- 
posed to  "  a  keen  east  wind  from  the  snow-covered  hills," 
was  subjected  to  a  much  lower  atmospheric  temperature, 
the  thermometer  having  stood  during  the  day  at  8°,  or 
twenty-four  degrees  below  freezing  point.  Having  forti- 
fied himself  with  a  hearty  breakfast,  however,  and  having 
been  in  some  measure  previously  inured  to  the  cold  by  a 
severe  frost  of  a  fortnight's  duration,  he  did  not  suffer 
from  it  to  any  extraordinary  degree ;  and,  with  the  aid  of 
a  fresh  supply  of  food  at  dinner,  he  arrived  at  his  jour- 
ney's end  without  any  greater  degree  of  numbness  of  the 
extremities  than  a  short  exposure  to  the  genial  warmth  of 
a  good  fire  subsequently  removed.  No  fermented  liquor 
was  taken  by  the  writer  on  this  journey ;  and  he  cannot 


\ 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


131 


)t  have 
ursc  to 
K3cially 
anction 
iast  as 
coholic 
ill  now 
te  atle- 

lis  own 
le  of  a 
of  Ja-   ' 
'  of  its 
of  the 
"  Mur- 
eceding 
le  miles 
1,  must 
not  ex- 
hills," 
^rature, 
;  8°,  or 
ig  forti- 
having 
Id  by  a 
t  suffer 
e  aid  of 
is  jour- 
s  of  the 
rmth  of 
d  liquor 
J  cannot 


tliink  that  he  could  have  derived  any  other  benefit  from 
it  than  that,  by  accelerating  the  general  circulation,  it 
might  have  possibly  kept  up  a  more  rnpid  flow  of  blood 
through  the  surface  and  extremities.  But  this  would 
have  been  a  doubtful  benefit,  if,  at  the  same  time,  the 
combustion  of  the  materials  supplied  by  the  food  had  been 
retarded  by  the  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood. 

121.  The  writer  has  heard  many  of  the  now  almost 
extinct  race  of  stage-coachmen  —  who  had  been  induced 
to  give  up  their  former  habit  of  imbibing  a  glass  of  ale  or 
brandy-and-water  at  every  stage,  and  to  substitute  an 
occasional  cup  of  hot  coffee  and  a  rasher  of  toasted  bacon 
—  speak  so  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  sui)erior  efficacy  of 
the  latter  system,  that  he  doubts  if  any  man  who  had  the 
resolution  to  adopt  it  ever  returned  to  his  old  habits, 
except  from  the  love  of  liquor. 

121.  Experience  on  a  much  larger  scale,  and  under  a 
greater  severity  of  cold,  leads  to  the  same  conclusions. 
The  Esquimaux,  Greenlander,  or  Canadian  relies  upon 
his  solid  aliment,  which  contains  a  considerable  amount 
of  oleaginous  matter,  for  his  power  of  resisting  cold ;  and, 
when  amply  supplied  with  food,  does  not  dread  the  ex- 
posure of  his  person  to  cold  of  the  greatest  severity. 
Thus,  Captain  Parry  mentions  with  surprise  that  he  saAV 
an  Esquimaux  female  uncover  her  bosom,  and  give  her 
child  suck,  in  the  open  air,  when  its  temperature  was 
forty  degrees  be/oiv  zero.  And  Sir  J.  Richardson,  in 
a  letter  to  the  writer,  states  that  "plenty  of  food  and 
sound  digestion  are  the  best  sources  of  heat ; "  and  that  a 
' '  Canadian,  with  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  good  beef  or 
venison  in  his  stomach,  will  resist  the  greatest  degree  of 
natural  cold,  in  the  open  air,  and  thinly  clad,  if  there  be 


1; 


132 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


i  i  I 


i 


not  a  strong  wind."  The  inhabitants  of  Arctic  regions 
appear  to  have  a  natural  relish  for  the  very  oleaginous 
food  which  nature  has  provided  for  them,  in  the  wliales, 
seals,  bears,  and  other  animals  upon  which  they  chiefly 
subsist ;  and  this  taste  is  acquired  by  Europeans  when 
exposed  to  the  same  conditions.  Thus,  Dr.  King,  who 
accompanied  Sir  George  Back  in  his  overland  expedi- 
tion in  search  of  Sir  John  Ross,  informed  the  author, 
that,  whereas  he  had  been  previously  accustomed  to  reject 
every  particle  of  fat,  owing  to  the  dislike  he  felt  for  it,  he 
found  himself  able,  during  his  Arctic  journey,  to  eat  any 
amount  of  it  with  rehsh,  and  even  experienced  a  positive 
craving  for  it ;  and  his  experience  led  him  to  consider 
himself  as  far  better  fortified  against  the  cold  by  the  use 
of  an  oleaginous  diet  than  by  that  of  fermented  liquors. 
Testimony  to  the  same  eflFcct  is  given  by  Dr.  J.  D. 
Hooker,  who  was  one  of  the  medical  oflScers  in  the 
Antarctic  expedition  under  the  command  of  Sir  James 
Ross.  He  says,  in  a  letter  to  the  author :  "  Several 
of  the  men  on  board  our  ship,  and  amongst  them  some  of 
the  best,  never  touched  grog  during  one  or  more  of  the 
Antarctic  cruises.  They  were  iiot  one  whit  the  worse  for 
their  abstinence,  but  enjoyed  the  same  perfect  health  that 
all  the  crew  did  throughout  the  four  years'  voyage.  Many 
of  our  men  laid  in  large  stocks  of  coffee,  and,  when  prac- 
ticable, had  it  made  for  them  after  the  watch  on  deck. 
These  men,  I  believe,  would  wiUingly  have  given  up  their 
spirits  in  exchange  for  coffee ;  but  we  could  not  insure 
them  the  latter  on  the  requisite  occasions." 

122.  The  foregoing  statements  appear  sufiicicnt  to 
prove,  that  a  sufiicient  supply  of  heat-producing  food 
effects  all  that  can  be  attributed  to  alcoholic  liquors  in 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


133 


sustaining  the  heat  of  the  body ;  but  we  shall  now  go 
further,  and  endeavor  to  establish  the  position,  that  the 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  positively  injurious  when  the 
exposure  to  cold  is  prolonged,  and  especially  when  mus- 
cular exertion  is  required.  Thus,  Dr.  Hooker  says,  in 
the  communication  just  cited:  "I  do  think  that  the 
use  of  spirits  in  cold  weather  is  generally  prejudicial.  I 
speak  from  my  OAvn  experience.  It  is  very  pleasant. 
The  glass  of  grc  -r  warms  the  mouth,  the  throat,  and  the 
abdomen ;  and  tiiis,  when  one  is  wet  and  cold,  with  no 
fire,  and  just  before  turning  into  damp  blankets,  is  very 
enticing.  But  it  never  did  me  one  atom  of  good ;  the 
extremities  are  not  warmed  by  it ;  and,  when  a  continu- 
ance of  exertion  or  endurance  is  called  for,  the  spirit 
does  harm,  for  then  yon  are  colder  or  more  fatigued  a 
quarter  or  half  an  hour  after  it,  than  you  ivould  have 
been  without  it.''''  The  testimony  of  othera  who  have 
been  subjected  to  still  more  trying  exposure  is  to  the 
same  eflFect.  Thus  Sir  J.  Richardson  states,  as  the 
result  of  liis  most  scycre  experience :  "  I  am  quite  satis- 
fied that  spirituous  liquors,  though  they  give  a  tem- 
porary stimulus,  diminish  the  power  of  resisting  cold. 
We  found,  on  our  northern  journey,  that  tea  was  much 
more  refreshing  than  wine  or  spirits,  which  we  soon 
ceased  to  care  for,  while  the  craving  for  the  tea  increased. 
Liebig,  I  believe,  considers  that  spirits  are  necessary  to 
northern  nations  to  diminish  the  waste  of  the  solids  of 
the  body,  and  that  tea  is  less  useful ;  but  my  experience 
leads  me  to  a  contrary  conclusion."  Dr.  King's  testi- 
mony was  piecisely  to  the  same  effect.  In  fiict,  it  would 
appear  that  a  very  general  concurrence  exists  on  this 

point  among  all  those  qualified  to  form  an  unprejudiced 
12 


Illili. 


134 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


judgment  in  regard  to  it ;  since  we  find,  that,  in  all  the 
recent  overland  Arctic  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  Brit- 
ish government,  it  has  been  expressly  provided  that  no 
fermented  liquors  shall  be  ased  by  the  parties  who  pro- 
ceed upon  them ;  and  that  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
have  for  many  yearc  C'^+irely  excluded  spirits  from  the 
fur-countries  to  the  north,  over  which  they  have  exclusive 
control,  "to  the  great  improvement,"  as  Sir  J.  Richard- 
son states,  "  of  the  health  and  morals  of  their  Canadian 
servants  and  of  the  Indian  tribes."  * 

123.  That  puch  are  the  teachings  of  sufficiently  pro- 
longed experience,  not  merely  in  the  frigid  zone,  but 
wherever  the  same  conditions  present  themselves,  will  ap- 
pear from  the  two  following  statements.  It  is  mentioned 
by  Dr.  Forbes,  f  as  the  result  of  his  personal  inquiries 
from  the  guides  at  Chamouni,  that,  when  they  are  out 
upon  their  winter  expeditions  among  the  Alpine  snows, 
they  never  find  it  advantageous  to  take  any  thing  stronger 

♦  To  the  above  testimony,  the  author  may  add  the  following, 
"with  -which  Mr.  Eaton  has  favored  him  :  The  Rev.  Richard  Knill, 
for  many  years  a  missionary  at  Petersburg,  stated  in  a  public 
meeting,  in  regard  to  the  delusion  which  prompted  people  to  use 
ardent  spirits  *•  to  keep  out  the  cold,"  that  the  Russians  had  long 
since  found  out  the  injurious  effects  of  taking  them  in  very  cold 
weather.  When  a  regiment  was  about  to  march,  orders  were 
issued  over  night  that  no  spiiits  were  to  be  taken  on  the  foUoAving 
morning ;  and,  to  ascertain  as  far  as  possible  that  the  order  had 
been  complied  with,  it  was  the  practice  of  their  officials,  answering 
to  our  corporals,  carefully  to  smell  the  breath  of  every  man  when 
assembled  in  the  morning  before  marching,  and  those  who  were 
found  to  have  taken  spirits  were  forthwith  ordered  out  of  the 
ranks,  and  prevented  from  marching  on  tliat  day ;  it  having  been 
found  that  such  men  were  peculiarly  subject  to  be  '•  frost-bitten," 
and  otherwise  injured. —  Auriioii. 

t  Physician's  Holiday,  p.  26,  note.  ' 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


135 


than  the  weak  wines  of  the  country  ;  considering  the  use 
of  spirits  to  be  decidedly  inimical  to  their  power  of 
sustaining  exertion  in  an  atmosphere  of  very  low  tem- 
perature. The  writer  had  the  opportunity,  about  a 
twelvemonth  since,  of  conversing  with  a  very  intelligent 
man  of  above  seventy  years  of  age,  residing  at  Wareham 
in  Dorsetshire,  who  had  spent  more  than  fifty  winters  as 
a  fowler,  in  which  vocation  he  had  been  exposed  to  the 
utmost  severity  of  the  winter's  cold ;  since  it  can,  of 
course,  be  most  profitably  pursued  when  the  largest 
number  of  birds  are  driven  southwards  by  the  intensity 
of  the  frost  in  their  northern  residence.  He  stated  that 
he  had  frequently  been  out  for  a  fortnight  at  a  time, 
without  lying  down,  save  in  his  little  boat,  and  scarcely 
ever  obtaining  warmth  from  a  fire  during  that  period ; 
and,  notwithstanding  such  severe  trials,  he  was  a  re- 
markably hale  and  vigorous  man  for  his  years.  Being 
himself  the  proprietor  of  a  small  public  house,  he  cannot 
be  supposed  to  have  any  prejudice  against  the  use  of 
fermented  hquors,  in  which  he  indulges  in  moderation ; 
but  his  testimony  to  the  writer  was  most  explicit  to  the 
following  effect :  that,  although  the  use  of  ale  or  brandy 
might  seem  beneficial  in  causing  the  cold  to  be  less  felt 
at  first  (so  that,  when  out  for  no  more  than  a  day  or  two, 
he  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  abstain  from  it),  the  case 
was  quite  reversed  when  the  duration  of  the  exposure 
was  prolonged ;  the  cold  being  then  more  severely  felt, 
the'larger  was  the  proportion  of  fermented  liquors  taken. 
And  he  further  stated,  that  all  the  fowlers  of  his  ac- 
quaintance, who  had  been  accustomed  to  employ  brandy 
with  any  freedom,  whilst  out  on  prolonged  expeditions, 
hiul  died  early ;  he  and  his  brother  (who  had  practised 


136 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


the  same  abstinence  as  himself)  having  outhved  nearly 
all  their  contemporaries. 

124.  Hence  it  may  be  argued  upon  scientific  princi- 
ples, that,  whilst  the  use  of  alcohohc  hquors  may  for  a 
time  aflford  assistance  in  maintaining  the  heat  of  the 
body,  so  as  the  better  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  influence 
of  severe  cold,  they  have  no  such  advantage  over  olea- 
ginous matter,  in  affording  a  jmbuliim  for  the  respiratory 
process,  as  sufficiently  compensates  for  their  injurious 
effect  in  preventing  or  retarding  the  oxygenation  of  those 
ingredients  of  venous  blood  which  ought  to  be  continually 
eliminated  by  the  respiratory  process.  Consequently, 
looking  at  the  chemical  influence  of  alcohol  merely,  we 
might  expect  the  prolonged  employment  of  alcoholic 
liquors  to  induce  such  a  vitiation  of  the  blood  as  will 
impair  its  fitness  for  the  manifold  purposes  which  it  is 
destined  to  answer.  No  such  result  will  follow  the  in- 
gestion of  heat-sustaining  food ;  since  this  waits  its  time 
for  the  combustive  operation,  without  interfering  with  the 
oxygenation  of  other  matters ;  and,  if  not  itself  consumed, 
it  is  stored  up  within  the  body  until  the  time  of  need. 
But  again,  although  the  stimulating  effect  of  alcoholic 
liquors  is  less  during  the  exposure  to  cold  than  it  is 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  yet  it  cannot  be  altogether 
prevented  by  the  more  rapid  combustion  which  the  alco- 
hol undergoes;  and  it  might  be  anticipated,  therefore, 
from  what  we  know  of  the  general  action  of  stimulants, 
that  the  depression  which  follows  upon  their  use  would 
render  the  body  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  the  influence  of 
cold ;  so  that,  although  they  may  help  to  keep  up  the 
temperature  of  the  body  for  a  time,  by  imparting  in- 
creased energy  to  the  circulation,  yet  when  that  energy 


I 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   TOWERS. 


137 


is  succeeded  (as  it  must  bo  sooner  or  later)  by  the 
opposite  condition,  the  cold  will  be  felt  with  |];reater 
intensity. 

125.  The  predictions  thus  based  on  physiological 
principles  are  found,  as  we  have  seen,  to  be  in  most 
perfect  harmony  with  experience.  For  this  teaches,  in 
the  first  place,  that,  although  alcoholic  liquors  may  af- 
ford advantages  equal  or  even  superior,  regarded  simply 
as  material  for  the  combustive  process,  to  those  derivable 
from  sohd  food,  those  advantages  are  not  of  long  dura- 
tion ;  so  that,  for  enabhng  the  body  to  resist  the  continued 
influence  of  severe  cold,  alcoholic  liquors  are  far  inferior 
in  potency  to  sohd  food.  And,  secondly,  that,  although 
the  increase  in  the  energy  of  the  circulation,  resulting 
from  the  stimulating  effect  of  alcohohc  liquors,  may  pre- 
vent the  depressing  influence  of  the  cold  from  having  its 
ordinary  action  upon  the  system,  provided  that  it  be 
exerted  only  whilst  that  effect  lasts ;  yet  that,  after  it  has 
subsided,  the  cold  is  felt  Avith  augmented  severity,  and 
its  action  upon  the  system  is  proportionately  injurious.* 


*  The  author  has  proferrccl  basing  his  conclusions  upon  infor- 
mation which  he  has  obtained  by  his  personal  inquiries.  He  might 
easily  have  brought  together  a  considerable  amount  of  published  tes- 
timony to  the  same  effect.  The  following  statements,  contained  in 
the  work  entitled  "  Bacchus,"  are  in  complete  harmony  with  those 
which  he  has  himself  adduced  :  "  In  1619,  the  cre-srof  a  Danish 
ship  of  sixty  men,  well  supplied  with  provision  and  ardent  spirit, 
attempted  to  pass  the  winter  at  Hudson's  Bay ;  but  fifty-eight  of 
them  died  before  the  spring  :  while  in  the  case  of  an  English  crew 
of  twenty-two  men,  in  the  same  circumstances,  but  destitute  of 
distilled  spirit,  only  two  died.  In  another  instance  of  eight  Eng- 
lishmen, also  without  spirituous  liquors,  who  wintered  in  the  same 
bay,  the  whole  survived,  and  returned  to  England ;  and  four  Rus- 
sians, left  without  ardent  spirits  or  provisions  in  Spitzbergen,  lived 
12* 


138 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


126.  The  question  .rhether  there  are  any  circum- 
stances under  which  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  can  be 
positively  advantageous  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the 
body  to  resist  cold,  will  be  considered  in  the  succeeding 
chapter  (^§  182—187). 


IV.    ENDURANCE  OF  HEAT. 

126.  Having  thus  concluded  our  inquiry  how  far  the 
use  of  alcoholic  hquors  is  necessary  or  desirable  for 
arming  the  body  against  the  depressing  effects  of  cold, 
we  shall  consider  their  agency  in  supporting  the  system 
under  the  enervating  influence  of  extreme  heat.  The 
belief  in  the  existence  of  such  an  agency  is  scarcely  less 
strongly  or  generally  entertained  than  that  of  their  pro- 
tective power  against  cold;  but  it  must  be  manifestly 
due,  if  it  exist,  to  some  modus  operandi  different  from 

for  a  period  of  six  years,  and  were  at  length  restored  to  their  coun- 
try. In  the  winter  of  1796,  a  vessel  was  wrecked  on  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  Massachusetts ;  there  were  seven  persons  on  board ; 
it  was  night ;  five  of  them  resolved  to  quit  the  wreck,  and  seek 
shelter  on  shore.  To  prepare  for  the  attempt,  four  of  them  drank 
freely  of  spirits ;  the  fifth  would  drink  none.  They  all  leaped  into 
the  water ;  one  was  drowned  before  he  reached  the  shore ;  the  other 
four  came  to  land,  and,  in  a  deep  snow  and  piercing  cold,  directed 
their  course  to  a  distant  light.  All  that  drank  spirits  failed,  and 
stopped,  and  froze,  one  after  another ;  the  man  that  drank  none 
reached  the  house,  and  about  two  years  ago  was  still  alive."  — 
(p.  374.)  The  evidence  of  Captain  (now  the  llev.  Dr.)  Scoresby, 
who  was  for  many  years  the  captain  of  a  whaling  ship,  is  precisely 
to  the  same  effect  with  that  of  the  Arctic  travellers  whose  testi- 
mony has  been  already  cited.  He  gives  it  as  his  decided  opinion, 
that  spirits  are  injurious  in  cold  climates ;  and  speaks  of  the  re- 
action as  especially  pernicious,  in  diminishing  the  power  of  sus- 
taining cold,  as  well  as  that  of  muscular  exertion.  —  Author.  ' 


IN   SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


139 


that  which  renders  them  serviceable  in  the  opposite  con- 
dition. For  it  cannot  be  imagined,  that  they  can  be  of 
any  service  by  affording  pabulum  for  the  combustive 
process,  Avhen  that  process  is  already  generating  more 
heat  than  the  body,  exposed  to  a  high  external  tempera- 
ture, can  possibly  need.  Nor  can  it  be  supposed,  that 
the  loss  of  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood,  by  the  per- 
spiratory process,  can  be  in  any  degree  I'cpaired  by  the 
ingestion  of  alcoholic  liquids.  It  must  be  presumed, 
then,  that  whatever  energy  their  use  may  communicate 
to  the  body  must  be  derived  from  their  stimulating 
properties,  and  must  be  subject  to  those  disadvantages 
which  are  inseparable  from  the  habitual  employment  of 
stimulants.  Each  of  these  points,  however,  requires  a 
fuller  examination. 

127.  It  is  well  known  to  the  physiologist,  that  the 
respiratory  process  in  warm-blooded  animals  is  much 
less  energetic  at  high  temperatures  than  at  low ;  the  sys- 
tem having  in  itself  the  power  of  regulating  the  amount 
of  matter  which  it  shall  burn  off,  in  order  that  its  heat 
may  be  kept  up  to  the  proper  standard.  Thus  it  was 
ascertained  by  the  experiments  of  Letellier,*  that  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  set  free  by  birds,  when  they  are 
breathing  in  an  atmosphere  of  from  86°  to  106*  Fahr. 
is  scarcely  more  than  one-third  of  that  which  they  gene- 
rate in  an  atmosphere  of  32°  ;  and,  by  similar  experi- 
ments upon  small  mammalia,!  it  was  ascertained  that 
they  only  give  off,  between  86°  and  106°,  about  half 
as  much  carbonic  acid,  and  between  59°  and  68°  about 

*  Comptes  Rendus,  torn.  xx.  p.  795 ;  and  Ann.  de  Chim.  et  de 
Phys.,  torn.  xiii.  p.  478. 

t  Mammalia,  animals  which  suckle  their  young ;  the  first  class. 


.1 


J  ,!| 


140 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


two-thirds  as  much,  as  they  generate  at  32*.  The 
experiments  of  Vierordt  *  upon  his  own  person  lead  to  a 
similar  conclusion  in  regard  to  man,  although  the  difFer- 
ence  is  not  so  great.  For  he  states  that  the  average 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  him  p.  v  minute, 
between  the  temperatures  of  24®  and  47"  Fahr.,  was  18  J 
cubic  inches ;  whilst  the  average  between  the  temperatures 
of  66®  and  92*  was  but  15|  cubic  inches.  It  is  obvi- 
ous, then,  that  the  demand  for  combustive  material  at 
high  temperatures  must  be  comparatively  small ;  and 
that  the  residents  in  hot  countries  cannot  require  the 
same  supply  of  heat-producing  aliment  as  is  needed  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  frigid  zone.  We  see  this  indicated 
in  the  quality  of  the  non-azotized  material  which  nature 
has  provided  for  their  use ;  for,  whilst  the  dwellers  amid 
the  Arctic  and  Anfcirctic  Seas  derive  their  chief  suste- 
nance from  those  oleaginous  articles  which  have  the 
greatest  heat-producing  power,  the  vast  population  of 
the  Equatorial  region  derives  its  principal  support  from 
those  farinaceous  f  vegetable  products  whose  non-azotized 
portion,  belonging  to  the  saccharine  class,  has  the  lowest 
calorific  agency  (§111). 

128.  It  is  very  necessary,  however,  to  bear  in  mind 
that  the  respiratory  process  is  not  one  of  simple  calori- 
fication ;  for  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  those 
excretory  operations  whereby  the  waste  or  eifete  %  matter 
of  the  system  is  eliminated  from  the  blood.  This,  in 
fact,  may  be  regarded  as  the  essential  part  of  the  func- 
tion, which  is  common  to  all  animals  ;  the  combustion  of 

*  Op.  cit.  §§  73—82. 

t  Farinaceous,  formed  from  grain,  as  meal  or  flour. 

X  Effete,  used  up,  refuse. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


141 


an  additional  amount  of  hydro-carlx>naceous  matter,  for 
the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  temperature  of  the  body 
at  a  fixed  standard,  being  peculiar  to  the  warm-blooded 
classes.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  from  the  diminution 
of  the  total  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  at  high 
temperatures,  the  excretory  part  of  the  respiratory  func- 
tion will  be  more  liable,  than  at  low  or  moderate  tempera- 
tures, to  interference  from  any  agency  wliich  still  further 
checks  the  oxygenation  of  the  combustible  matter  of  the 
blood. 

129.  Now,  as  we  have  found,  that,  under  exposure  to 
severo  cold,  the  stimulating  effects  of  alcoholic  hquors 
(especially  when  taken  at  intervals,  in  small  quantities  at 
a  time)  are  but  little  felt,  the  alcohol  being  burned  oflF 
before  it  can  accumulate  so  as  to  exert  any  considerable 
influence  on  the  nervous  system;  so  might  we  expect, 
that,  under  the  influence  of  external  heat,  when  the  com- 
bustive  process  is  greatly  reduced  in  activity,  the  stimu- 
lant effects  of  alcohol  should  be  more  rapidly  produced 
and  more  powerfully  exerted.  And  further,  if  the  views 
formerly  stated  be  correct  as  to  the  efiects  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  alcohol  into  the  blood,  in  preventing  the  elimi- 
nation of  matters  which  ought  to  be  carried  off  by  the 
respiratory  process,  we  should  expect  that  the  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  in  warm  climates  would  exert  this 
obstructive  influence  in  a  peculiar  degree.  Both  these 
anticipations  are  confirmed  by  ample  experience,  which 
thus  bears  testimony  to  the  soundness  of  our  principles. 
'For  it  is  well  known  that  a  far  smaller  quantity  of  alco- 
holic liquor  suffices  to  produce  intoxication  beneath  a 
burning  sun  than  in  a  frosty  atmosphere ;  so  that  indi- 
viduals who  are  not  aware  of  this  fact  sometimes  become 


142 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


intoxicattHl,  without  having  exceeded  the  allowance  which 
they  beheved  to  bo  perfectly  compatible  with  sobriety. 
Again,  it  has  been  continually  observed,  that,  when  alco- 
holic liquors  are  taken  during  the  performance  of  severe 
labor  in  an  extremely  high  temperature,  their  temporary 
stimulation  is  followed  by  a  very  rapid  and  decided  fail- 
ure both  of  nervous  and  muscular  power ;  so  that  men 
who  drink  largely  of  such  liquors  in  the  intervals  of  their 
work  are  obliged  to  abstain  from  them  whilst  their  labor 
is  in  progress.  This  result  appears  fairly  attributable  to 
vitiation  of  the  circulating  blood,  consequent  upon  the 
retention  of  matters  destined  for  excretion ;  the  removal 
of  which,  by  the  oxygenating  process,  has  been  obstructed 
by  the  presence  of  alcohol.  And  the  same  inference 
appears  legitimately  deducible  from  the  peculiar  tenden- 
cy (already  referred  to,  §*§»  54,  55),  which  the  habitual 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  warm  climates  has  to  engender 
diseases  of  the  liver ;  the  duty  of  separating  those  hydro- 
carbonaceous  *  products  of  the  waste  of  the  system,  which 
are  poisonous  if  retained  in  the  blood,  being  unduly 
thrown  upon  the  liver,  when  their  elimination  by  the 
lungs  is  interfered  with. 

130.  That  the  use  of  alcohol  is  especially  necessary  to 
support  the  system  under  its  excessive  loss  by  perspira- 
tion at  high  temperatures,  is  an  idea  so  commonly  held, 
that  it  demands  a  serious  refutation ;  although  the  fallacy 
of  the  notion,  that,  because  ivater  is  drawn  off  from  the 
blood  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  alcohol  must  be 
taken  into  the  stomach  to  replace  it,  would  appear  self- 
evident.  The  fundamental  error  seems  to  lie  in  the 
notiOi-,  that  copious  perspiration  in  itself  really  weakens 

*  Ifj/dro-carbonaceous,  composed  of  hydrogen  and  carbon. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE    VITAL    POWEUS. 


143 


tho  system;  whilst  it  is,  in  fact,  notliing  else  than  the 
means  by  which  the  external  warmth  is  prevented  from 
raising  tho  heat  of  tho  body  above  its  normal  standard. 
Tho  determination  of  the  blood  to  tho  skin,  wliich  that 
heat  excites,  appears  to  cause  an  unusual  transudation  * 
of  the  watery  part  of  the  blood  through  the  thin- walled 
capillaries  f  of  the  sweat-glands ;  just  as  certain  diuretic  J 
medicines  increase  tho  quantity  of  water  in  the  urine,  by 
causing  an  increased  determination  of  blood  to  the  kid- 
neys ;  but,  with  this  large  amount  of  watery  fluid,  very 
little  solid  matter  passes  off",  —  none,  in  fact,  but  what  is 
purely  excrementitious. 

131.  That  perspiration,  however  abundant,  has  in 
itself  no  weakening  eflfect,  —  except  by  diminishing  the 
quantity  of  water  in  the  blood  (which  is  readily  supplied 
by  absorption  from  the  stomach),  — appears  from  the  fact, 
that,  if  persons  exposed  to  a  very  high  temperature  make 
no  bodily  exertion,  they  do  not  experience  any  loss  of 
vigor,  if  copiously  supplied  with  cold  water.  In  fact, 
such  exposure  may  be  made  to  conduce  vt-ry  decidedly  to 
the  invigoration  of  the  system.  All  travellers  who  have 
tried  the  Russian  baths  speak  of  the  feelings  of  renova- 
tion wliich  the  copious  perspiration,  and  the  subsequent 
plunge  into  cold  water,  produce  in  the  wearied  frame. 
And  those  who  have  given  a  fair  trial  to  the  hydropathic  || 
treatment,  in  appropriate  cases,  are  unanimous  in  the 
same  testimony.  The  writer  has  himself  been  in  a  stove- 
room,   in  which  delicate   females  were   accustomed  to 

*  Transudation,  passing  out  by  sweat. 

t  Capillaries,  very  minute  vessels. 

X  Diuretics,  substances  which  increase  the  ui-ine. 

II  Hydropathy,  water-practice. 


J!- 
1 


%i\ 


144 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


remain  for  half  an  hour  or  more,  when  it  was  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  from  140°  to  170°  Fahr. ;  their  wrap- 
pings becoming  saturated  by  copious  perspiration,  the 
material  for  which  was  supplied  by  the  water  administered 
to  them  internally  from  time  to  time ;  and  he  has  had 
ample  assurance  to  the  effect,  that  this  process,  when  fol- 
lowed by  the  cold  plunge,  had  usually  an  invigorating 
influence,  which  quite  sets  aside  the  idea  that  the  act  of 
perepiration  is  in  itself  exhausting,  or  that  it  removes 
from  the  system  any  thing  which  it  can  be  requisite  for 
alcohol  to  supply. 

132.  The  peculiar  fatigue  which  usually  results  from 
muscular  exertion  at  a  high  temperature  is  generally  set 
down  as  the  consequence  of  the  excessive  perspiration ; 
although  the  fact  is,  that  the  fatigue  is  chiefly  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  interference  with  the  vaporous  or  "insensi- 
ble "  transpiration,  which  is  produced  by  the  accumulation 
of  liquid  or  "  sensible  "  perspiration  on  the  surface  of  the 
skin,  and  by  the  saturation  of  the  garments  in  contact 
with  it.  For  the  same  fatigue  is  experienced  when  the 
atmosphere  is  loaded  with  dampness,  even  at  a  low  tem- 
perature ;  and  it  has  been  the  uniform  result  of  the 
attempt  to  use  any  muscular  effort,  when  the  body  has 
been  clothed  in  water-proof  garments  made  after  the 
fashion  of  ordinary  clothes,  so  as  not  only  to  keep  out 
the  rain,  but  to  keep  in  the  insensible  perspiration.  In 
either  case  the  effect  is  the  same,  —  the  due  vaporization 
of  fluid  at  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  checked ;  the  cooling 
influence  of  the  perspiration  is  not  exerted ;  and  the  heat 
of  the  body  itself  is  injuriously  augmented.*     And  as 

*  Thus  it  was  found  by  MM.  Delaroche  and  Berger,  that,  -when 
animals  were  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  120%  their  bodies 


IN   SUSTAININQ   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


145 


an  augmentation  of  from  11*  to  13*  in  the  temperature 
of  a  warm-blooded  animal  produces  an  invariably /a/a/ 
result,  so  can  it  bo  readily  understood  that  an  increase  of 
2*  or  3*  nmst  be  attended  with  injurious  consequences,, 
so  long  as  it  lasts. 

133.  Among  these  consequences,  we  may  probably 
rank  a  still  further  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  carbonic 
acid  exhaled  from  the  lungs ;  as  well  as  an  obstruction  to 
the  cutaneous  respiration,*  which,  although  its  propor- 
tional amount  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
is  certainly  of  no  mean  importance  in  the  depuration  f  of 
the  blood.  Hence,  an  accumulation  of  excremcntitious 
matters  will  take  place  in  the  circulating  fluid,  such  as 
affords  quite  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  peculiar  fatigue 
which  is  experienced  when  muscular  exertion  is  called  for 
in  a  heated  atmosphere  already  charged  with  moisture. 
And  we  should  expect,  that  such  exertion  could  be  per- 
formed with  much  less  feeling  of  exhaustion  in  an  atmo- 
sphere of  dry  air,  though  of  very  high  temperature,  — 
such  as  that  of  glass-houses,  gas-works,  or  foundries, 
—  than  in  the  less  heated  atmosphere  of  tropical  coun- 
tries, which  usually  contains  a  considerable  amount  of 
watery  vapor.     This  is  undoubtedly  the  fact ;  and,  as  a 


being  enveloped  in  close  boxes,  whilst  tlieir  heads  were  free,  a 
thermometer  placed  in  the  mouth  showed  an  increase  of  6"  in  the 
heat  of  the  body,  in  the  com-se  of  seventeen  minutes ;  this  eleva- 
tion being  obviously  due  to  the  obstruction  to  the  transpiration 
from  the  surface  of  the  body.  When,  by  continued  exposure  to  a 
heated  atmosphere  saturated  with  moisture,  the  temperature  of 
the  body  was  raised  from  11"  to  13°  above  the  natural  standard, 
the  animals  uniformly  died.  —  Authok. 

*  Cutaneous  respiration^  perspiration, 
t  Depuration,  purifying. 
13 


1 


X    > 

hi 


1 1 


i'i 


li 


146 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL 


far  larger  amount  of  liquid  will  be  carried  off  by  insensi- 
ble transpiration  *  in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter, 
it  proves  the  correctness  of  our  position,  that  it  is  not 
the  loss  of  liquid  from  the  skin  which  is  the  cause  of  the 
peculiar  exhaustion  that  results  from  muscular  exertion 
in  a  heated  atmosphere ;  f  and  that  we  are  to  look  for 
the  source  of  that  exhaustion  in  the  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  itself,  which  will  be  produced  with 
peculiar  facihty  in  a  damp  and  heated  atmosphere ;  and 
in  the  accumulation  of  excrementitious  matters  in  the 
blood,  which  will  be  especially  hkely  to  take  place  when 
their  elimination  %  through  the  lungs  is  being  checked,  at 
the  same  time  that  an  increased  amount  is  being  gene- 
rated by  the  waste  of  the  muscular  tissues. 

134.  If,  then,  our  fundamental  positions  have  been 
just,  and  our  argument  correct,  we  should  infer,  that, 
putting  aside  their  peculiar  influence  upon  the  ner\'0U8 
system,  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  during  muscular 
exertion  in  a  heated  atmosphere,  and  especially  when 
that  atmosphere  is  charged  with  moisture,  can  be  nothing 
else  than  injurious;  as  tending  to  interfere  still  more 
with  that  elimination  of  excrementitious  ||  matters  from 
the  blood  which  is  peculiarly  required  when  a  continual 
production  of  such  matters  is  taking  place  through  the 
disintegration  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues  conse- 
quent upon  their  functional  activity,  and  wliich  is  already 

*  Insensible  transpiration,  continued  imperceptible  sweat. 

f  "We  are  of  conrse  supposing,  throughout,  that  water  is  freely 
supplied  in  both  cases.  The  exhaustion  produced  by  the  undue 
diminution  of  the  fluids  of  the  body,  indicated  by  excessive  thii'St. 
is  of  qtiite  a  different  character.  —  Authou. 

X  Elimitiation,  separation,  escape. 

1}    Excrcmcntitiotis,  refuse. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


147 


retarded  by  the  diminution  in  the  activity  of  respiration. 
We  shall  presently  find  that  experience  is  here  also  in 
accordance  with  theory ;  the  result  of  many  trials  having 
shown  that  severe  and  long-continued  exertion  in  tropical 
climates  can  be  better  sustained  without  alcoholic  liquors 
than  ivith  their  habitual  use. 

135.  The  stimulative  effects,  from  which  alcoholic 
liquors  derive  their  reputation  as  supportera  of  bodily 
vigor,  during  habitual  exposure  to  a  heated  atmosphere, 
are  exerted  in  two  ways :  in  the  first  place,  by  giv- 
ing temporary  assistance  to  the  digestive  process ;  and, 
secondly,  by  increasing,  for  a  time,  the  nervous  and  mus- 
cular power.  It  is  commonly  supposed,  that  the  diminu- 
tion of  appetite  which  is  experienced  by  most  pei-sons 
who  change  their  residence  from  a  temperate  country  to 
a  hot  one  is  the  result  of  the  enervating  influence  of  the 
climate ;  whereas  the  fact  is  evident  to  those  who  take 
into  account  the  proportionally  smaller  amount  of  car- 
bonic acid  exhaled  as  the  external  temperature  rises,  that 
the  diminished  appetite  chiefly  results  from  diminution 
in  the  demand  for  combustive  material;  and  that  it 
ought,  therefore,  to  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  pro- 
priety of  lessening  the  amount  of  food  ingested,  rather 
than  of  forcing  the  stomach  to  augmented  activity  for  the 
purpose  of  disposing  of  the  superfluity  which  it  has  taken 
in.  All  medical  authorities  on  the  diseases  of  tropical 
climates  are  in  accord  upon  this  point,  —  that,  next  to 
the  injury  derived  from  the  abuse  of  fermented  liquoi*s, 
excess  in  diet  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  of  those  sources 
of  disease  which  arise  out  of  the  personal  habits  of  the 
individual ;  and  such  excess  is  in  great  degree  due  to 
the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  as  an  artificial  provocative 


148 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


I 


li 


I 


to  the  appetite,  whereby  the  blood  becomes  charged  with 
more  ahmentary  material  than  it  can  rightly  dispose  of; 
so  that  the  diminution  in  the  activity  of  the  respiratory 
process  throws  the  elimination  of  this  superfluity  upon 
the  liver,  which  organ  consequently  becomes  pecuharly 
liable  to  functional  disorder. 

136.  We  have  continual  opportunities  of  noticing  the 
same  sequence  of  phenomena  in  our  own  country,  though 
in  a  less  marked  degree.  A  (hminution  in  the  appetite  is 
experienced  by  most  persons  during  the  heat  of  summer ; 
and,  if  the  Avarning  be  not  lost,  the  amount  of  food  ingested 
is  proportioned  to  the  demand.  But  those  who  from 
habit  continue  to  take  in  their  usual  supply  are  extremely 
liable  to  be  warned  of  the  impropriety  of  such  a  course 
by  hepatic  derangement ;  and  the  bihous  diarrhoea  which 
is  so  common  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  and  which  is 
connected  in  the  popular  mind  with  the  "  plum  season  " 
(although  it  frequently  affects  persons  who  have  alto- 
gether abstained  from  fruit),  seems  to  find  a  rational 
explanation  in  the  accumulation  of  excrementitious  mat- 
ter, which  must  be  the  consequence  of  habitual  excess  in 
diet,  especially  when  the  stomach  is  stimulated  by  alco- 
holic hquors  to  digest  more  than  could  be  appropriated 
without  such  artificial  aid. 

137.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  to  believe,  that 
(with  the  exception  of  the  difference  in  regard  to  amount, 
which  has  been  already  remarked  upon,  §  129)  the 
stimulating  influence  of  alcoholic  liquors  upon  the  ner- 
vous system,  whereby  it  is  enabled  to  put  forth  increased 
power  so  long  as  this  influence  lasts,  is  exerted  in  any 
other  mode,  when  the  body  is  habitually  exposed  to  a 
high  temperature,  than  that  in  which  it  operates  under 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


149 


ordinary  circumstances.  That  the  excitement  must  Ije 
followed  by  subsequent  depression  is  as  true  in  India  as 
in  England ;  and  that  this  excitement,  if  habitually  had 
recourse  to,  will  be  followed  in  hot  climates  hj  conse- 
quences even  more  injurious  than  in  cold  or  temperate 
regions,  might  be  inferred  from  all  that  has  been  already 
stated  in  regard  to  its  peculiar  unsuitableness  when  the 
activity  of  the  respiratory  process  is  diminished. 

138.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  inquire,  therefore,  how 
far  the  experience,  both  of  individuals  and  of  large  bodies 
of  men,  supports  the  idea  that  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
stimulants,  or  at  most  the  very  sparing  use  of  them,  is  fa- 
vorable to  the  endurance  of  extreme  heat,  especially  when 
great  bodily  exertion  is  required.  And  we  shall  first  cite 
the  evidence  of  the  late  Mr.  Gardner,*  a  well-educated 
surgeon,  who  spent  several  years  of  most  active  exertion 
in  the  exploration  of  the  botany  of  Brazil,  into  which 
country  he  penetrated  further  than  any  scientific  Euro- 
pean had  previously  done.  During  thiee  years'  travelhng 
in  that  climate,  he  tells  us,f  under  constant  fatigue  and 
exposure  to  \dcissitudes  of  weather  and  irregularity  of 
living,  his  only  beverage,  besides  water,  was  tea,  of  wbioh 
he  had  laid  in  a  large  stock  previously  to  his  departure 
from  Pernambuco.  He  was  told  when  he  arrived  at  Bra- 
zil, that  he  would  find  it  necessary  to  mix  either  wine  or 

*  The  author  has  been  informed  by  an  intimate  friend  of  this 
gentleman,  that  his  lamented  death,  •which  took  place  from  a  coup 
de  soldi,  X  whilst  holding  the  appointment  of  Superintendent  of 
the  Botanic  Garden  at  Ceylon,  was  entirely  due  to  the  injudicious 
and  almost  foolhardy  exposure  to  which  his  confidence  in  his 
vigor  led  him  to  subject  himself.  —  Autiiok. 

t  Travels  in  Brazil,  p.  402. 

X  Coup  de  soleil,  stroke  of  the  sun. 


150 


SUPPOSED  USES   OF  ALCOHOL 


r 


M  li 

I 


■  t 

1  , 


r.    ■  J 

1; 

'•I  'it 


brandy  with  the  water  which  he  drank ;  but  a  very  short 
experience  convinced  him,  not  only  that  they  are  unneces- 
sary, but  that  they  are  decidedly  hurtful  to  those  whose 
occupations  lead  them  much  into  the  sun.  "  Whoever 
drinks  stimulating  liquors,"  he  says,  "  ai^d  travels  day 
after  day  in  the  sun,  will  cei-tainly  suffer  from  headache ; 
and,  in  countries  where  miasmata  prevail,  he  will  be  far 
more  likely  to  be  attacked  by  the  diseases  which  are 
there  endemic." 

139.  Equally  explicit  testimony  is  borne  by  Sir  James 
Brooke,  the  enterprising  and  skilful  colonizer  of  Borneo ; 
who  speaks  in  his  "Journal"  of  habitual  abstinence 
from  alcoholic  liquors  as  decidedly  conducive  to  the 
maintenance  of  health,  and  of  the  power  of  sustained 
exertion,  in  the  equatorial  regions  in  which  he  had  es- 
tablished himself  So,  again,  Mr.  Waterton,  the  well- 
known  traveller,  speaks  of  himself  as  confident  that  the 
preservation  of  his  vigor,  during  many  years  of  toil  and 
•exposure  in  tropical  climates,  is  mainly  due  to  his  total 
abstinence  from  fermented  liquors.  And  the  writer  has 
been  assured  by  Dr.  Daniell,  who  was  for  a  long  time 
stationed  as  medical  officer  in  the  equatorial  portions  of 
Western  Africa,  that  he  found  the  use  of  the  ordinary 
alcoholic  liquors  decidedly  inimical  to  the  power  of  exer- 
.tion ;  the  strongest  beverage  which  could  be  habitually 
made  use  of  without  injury  being  the  "palm- wine"  of 
those  countries,  which  is  very  little,  if  at  all,  more  alco- 
holic than  our  ginger-beer.  The  following  testimony, 
given  by  Dr.  Mosely  in  his  work  on  Tropical  Diseases, 
■maybe  added  to  the  foregoing:  "I  have  ever  found," 
he  says,  "from  my  own  knowledge  and  custom,  a^  well 
as  from  the  custom  and  observation  of  others,  that  those 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL   POWERS. 


151 


exer- 


?j 


of 


who  drink  nothing  but  water,  or  make  it  their  principal 
drink,  are  but  little  affected  by  the  chmate,  and  can 
undergo  the  greatest  fatigue  without  inconvenience." 
Many  other  individual  testimonies  might  be  cited  to  the 
same  effect ;  but,  as  these  are  open  to  the  objection  of 
being  influenced  by  pecuharities  of  individual  constitu- 
tion, it  will  be  preferable  to  have  recourse  to  cases  in 
wliich  large  bodies  of  men  are  included. 

140.  The  following  statement,  which  the  writer  has 
received  from  an  oflScer  in  the  regiment  to  which  it  refers, 
proves  that  our  English  soldiers  in  India  not  only  do  not 
suffer  from,  but  are  absolutely  benefited  by,  abstinence 
from  alcoholic  liquors  during  a  continuance  of  unusually 
severe  exertion:   "  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1847, 
the  84th  regiment  marched  by  wings  from  Madras  to 
Secunderabad,  a  distance  of  between  four  and  five  hun- 
dred miles.    They  were  forty-seven  days  on  the  road;  and, 
during  this  period,  the  men  were,  practically  speaking, 
teetotalers.     Previously  to  leaving  Madras,  subscriptions 
were  made  among  the  men,  and  a  coffee-establishment 
was  organized.     Every  morning,  when  the  tents  were 
struck,  a  pint  of  hot  coffee  and  a  biscuit  were  ready  for 
each  man,  instead  of  the  daily  morning  dram  which  sol- 
diers on  the   march  in  India  almost  invariably  take. 
Half-way  on  the  day's  march,  the  regiment  halted,  and 
another  pint  of  coffee  was  ready  for  any  man  who  wished 
it.     The  regimental  canteen  was  opened  only  at  ten  and 
twelve  o'clock  for  a  short  time,  but  the  men  did  not 
frequent  it ;  and  the  daily  consumption  of  arrack  for  our 
wing  was  only  two  gallons  and  a  few  drams  per  diem, 
instead  of  twenty-seven  gallons,  which  was  the  daily 
government-allowance.      The   conmianding   ofiicer  em- 


H 


152 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


i 


y  ■     i 


ployed  the  most  judicious  precautions  to  prevent  the 
men  from  obtaining  arrack  in  the  villages  on  the  route ; 
and  his  exertions  were  eflFectively  seconded  by  the  zeal- 
ous co-operation  of  the  other  officers,  and  by  the  admira- 
ble conduct  of  the  majority  of  the  men,  who  were  fully 
persuaded  of  the  noxious  influence  of  ardent  spirits  during 
exercise  in  the  sun.  The  results  of  tliis  water-system 
were  -shortly  these :  Although  the  road  is  proverbial  fov 
cholt  ?'.)  and  dysentery,  and  passes  through  several  un- 
healthy and  marshy  districts,  the  men  were  free  from 
Juiciness  to  an  extent  absolutely  unprecedented  in  our 
maiv^^-  ill  India;  they  had  no  cholera  and  no  fever; 
and  ohi  V  two  men  were  lost  by  dysentery,  both  of  whom 
were  old  chronic  cases  taken  out  of  hodpital  at  Madras. 
With  these  exceptions,  there  was  scarcely  a  serious  case 
of  sickness  during  the  whole  march.  The  officers  were 
surprised,  that  the  men  marched  infinitely  better,  with 
less  fatigue  and  with  fewer  stragglers,  than  they  had 
ever  before  known ;  and  it  was  noticed  by  every  one, 
that  the  men  were  unusually  cheerful  and  contented. 
During  the  whole  march,  the  regiment  had  not  a  single 
prisoner  for  drunkenness."  A  considerable  proportion 
of  the  men  (the  writer  has  learned  from  his  informant) 
abstained  entirely  from  arrack :  and  the  consumption  of 
those  who  occasionally  took  it  v-as  tar  below  their  usual 
allowance.  Those  who  entire >j  abstained  were  certainly 
in  no  respect  inferior,  either  in  power  of  sustaining 
exertion  or  in  freedom  from  sickness,  to  those  who  occa- 
casionally  took  small  quantities  of  spirits  :  on  the  con- 
trary, they  rather  seemed  to  have  the  advantiige.  That 
this  remarkable  result  was  not  dae  to  any  peculiar 
liealthfulness  of  the  season,  or  other  modifying  circum- 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL   POWERS. 


153 


stance,  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  the  63d  regiment, 
which  performed  the  same  march  ^  at  the  very  same  time, 
though  in  the  opposite  direction,  lost  several  nier  out  of  a 
strength  f  f  four  hundred ;  and  that  it  had  so  maiiy  sick, 
that,  when  it  met  the  84th  on  its  mnrch,  it  was  obliged  to 
borrow  the  spare  "  dhoolies  "  (or  palanquins  for  the  sick) 
belonging  to  the  latter.* 

141.  The  foregoing  account  fully  accords  with  that 
given  by  Sir  James  (then  Mr.)  M'Grigor,  of  the  march 
in  Egypt  of  a  division  of  the  British  army  sent  from 
Hindustan  to  aid  the  main  army  in  opposing  the  French 
under  Bonaparte.  After  the  Great  Desert  had  been 
crossed,  in  July,  1801,  no  spirits  were  issued  to  the 
troops  in  Upper  Egypt,  owing  to  a  diificulty  in  procuring 
carriage  for  them.  At  this  time  there  was  much  fa- 
tigue-duty to  be  performed,  which,  for  want  of  followers, 
was  done  by  the  soldiers  themselves ;  the  other  duties 
were  severe  upon  them ;  they  were  frequently  exercised, 
and  were  much  in  the  sun  ;  the  heat  was  excessive,  the 
thermometer  standing  at  113*  or  114°  Fahr.  in  the  sol- 
diers' tents,  in  the  middle  of  the  day ;  bxit  at  no  time  xvas 
the  Indian  army  more  healthy, \ 

*  The  marked  contrast  between  the  rate  of  morteility  in  the 
63d  and  84th  regiments,  during  their  respective  residences  at 
Secunderabad  during  two  consecutive  years,  has  been  already 
noticed  (§§  81,  82) ;  but  it  may  be  as  well  hfere  to  remind  the 
reader,  that  the  former  lost  seventy-three  men  in  nine  months, 
which  was  at  the  rate  of  78*8  per  1,000  of  average  strength  for  the 
entire  yea** ;  whilst  the  latter  lost  but  thirty-nine  men  in  the  whole 
twelve  months,  being  at  the  rate  of  34'2  of  average  strength.  — 
Author. 

t  Medical  Sketches  of  the  Expedition  from  India  to  Egypt, 
page  86, 


ii 


i.i  I'll 


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154 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


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142.  The  intimate  acciuaintance  of  Sir  Charles  Na- 
pier with  the  habits  and  wants  of  the  Indian  soldier  can 
be  doubted  by  no  one ;  and  the  following  is  his  testimony 
in  favor  of  the  abstinence  system  (delivered  in  his  own 
characteristic  manner),  as  contained  in  his  address  to 
the  96th  regiment,  when  he  reviewed  it  at  Calcutta,  on 
the  11th  of  May,  1849:  "Let  me  give  you  a  bit  of 
advice :  that  is,  don't  drink.  I  know  young  men  do  not 
think  much  about  advice  from  old  men.  They  put  their 
tongue  in  their  cheek,  and  think  that  they  know  a  good 
deal  better  than  the  old  cove  that  is  giving  them  advice. 
But  let  me  tell  you,  that  you  are  come  to  a  country 
where,  if  you  drink,  you're  dead  men.  If  you  be  sober 
and  steady,  you'll  get  on  well;  but,  if  you  drink,  you're 
done  for.  You  will  be  either  invalided  or  die.  I  knew 
two  regiments  in  this  country ;  one  drank,  the  other 
didn't  drink.  The  one  that  didn't  drink  is  one  of  the 
finest  regiments,  and  has  got  on  as  well  as  any  regiment 
in  existence.  The  one  that  did  drink  has  been  all  but 
destroyed.  For  any  regiment  for  which  I  have  a  respect 
(and  there  is  not  one  of  the  British  regiments  that  I 
don't  respect),  I  should  always  try  and  persuade  them  to 
keep  from  drinking.  I  know  there  are  some  men  who 
will  drink  in  spite  of  the  devil  and  their  officers ;  but 
such  men  will  soon  be  in  hospital ;  and  very  few  that  go 
in,  in  this  country,  ever  come  out  again." 

143.  Whatever  temporary  advantage,  then,  is  derived, 
or  supposed  to  be  derived,  from  the  stimulating  powers 
of  alcoholic  liquors,  when  they  are  used  witli  a  view  of 
sustaining  the  power  of  exertion  in  tropical  climates,  is 
dearly  purchased  by  the  increased  liability  to  disease, 
which  not  only  theoretically^  but,  according  to  all  compe- 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


155 


tent  evidence,  actually  results  from  their  habitual  use. 
And  thus  theory  and  practice  are  again  completely 
agreed  in  affording  a  decisive  contradiction  to  the  usually 
received  idea,  that  alcoholic  liquors  assist  the  body  in  the 
endurance  of  heat. 

V.    RESISTANCE  TO   MORBIFIC  AGENCIES. 

144.   It  is  a  common  idea,  and  one  apparently  sup- 
ported by  adequate  evidence,  that  such  a  use  of  fermented 
liquors  as  aids  in  keeping  the  body  in  "high  condition" 
renders  it  less  susceptible  of  the  influence  of  pestilential 
miasmata,*  of  cold  and  damp,  or  of  other  morbific  agen- 
cies ;  and  this  belief  is  entertained  by  many  who  deprecate 
the  habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors  under  other  circum- 
stances.     Thus,  says  Dr.  Macnish,   "I  am  persuaded 
that  while,  in  the  tropics,  stimulating  liquors  are  highly 
prejudicial,  and  often  occasion,  while  they  never  prevent, 
disease,  they  are  frequently  of  great  service  in  accomplish- 
ing the  latter  object  in  damp,  foggy  countries ;  especially 
when  fatigue,  poor  diet,  agues,  dysenteries,  and  other 
diseases  of  debility,  arc  to  be  contended  against."  —  "In 
countries  subject  to  intermittents,  it  is  very  well  known, 
that  those  who  indulge  moderately  in  spirits  are  much 
less  subject  to  these  diseases  than  the  strictly  absti- 
nent." t     These  assertions  he  endeavors  to  justify  by 
the  two  following  statements :  "At  Walcheren,  it  was  re- 
marked that  those  officers  and  soldiers  who  took  schnaps, 
alias  brandy  drams,  in  the  morning,  and  smoked,  escaped 
the  fever  which  was  so  destructive  to  the  British  troops ; 

*  Miasmata,  seeds  of  disease. 

t  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  pp.  277,  279. 


!'.i 


f\  t] 


I] 


156 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF   ALCOHOL 


and  the  natives  generally  insisted  upon  doing  so  before 
going  out  in  the  moniir<^."  *  ;\.gain,  "  A  British  regi- 
ment quartered  on  the  Niagara  frontier  of  Upper  Canada, 
in  the  year  1813,  was  prevented  by  some  accident  from 
receiving  the  usual  supply  of  spirits ;  and,  in  a  very 
short  time,  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  men  were  on  the 
sick-list  from  ague  and  dysentery ;  while  the  very  next 
year,  on  the  same  ground,  and  in  almost  every  respect 
under  the  same  circumstances,  except  that  the  men  had 
their  usual  allowance  of  spirits,  the  sickness  was  ex- 
tremely trifling.  Every  person  acquainted  with  the 
circumstances  believed  that  the  diminution  of  the  sick, 
during  the  latter  period,  was  attributable  to  the  men 
having  received  the  quantity  of  spirits  to  which  they  had 
been  habituated."  f 

145.  Now,  it  is  obvious  that  neither  of  these  facts 
proves  that  exposure  to  the  morbific  agencies  in  question 
renders  an  allowance  of  spirits  necessary,  or  even  bene- 
ficial, for  those  who  have  not  been  accustomed  to  make 
use  of  it  under  ordinary  circumstances.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  second  instance  is  a  valuable  testimony  to  the 
disadvantage  of  habitual  dependence  upon  alc^I^clic  sti- 
mulants ;  inasmuch  as  it  is  evident,  that,  when  they  were 
withheld  from  the  troops,  the  constitution  of  the  men 
was  rendered  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  causes  of  dis- 
ease indigenous  $  to  their  locality.  All  that  it  proves  is, 
that  an  unduly  depressed  state  of  the  system  is  favorable 
to  attacks  of  ague  and  dysentery  (of  wliich  every  medical 
practitioner  is  aware) ;  and  that,  in  persons  who  have 

*  Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  No.  xv. 

t  Op.  cit. 

X  Indigenous,  belonging  to  the  place. 


IN   SUSTAINING    TUE   VITAL  POWERS. 


157 


habituated  themselves  to  the  use  of  spirits,  such  depres- 
sion is  hal)le  to  supervene  when  the  allowance  is  with- 
held, and  may  be  for  a  time  kept  off  by  its  restoration. 
And  even  the  first  exaniplc  cannot  be  said  to  prove  more 
than  this ;  for  it  simply  gives  us  the  experience  of  indi- 
viduals who  took  an  early  dose  of  spirits,  as  conippr*  '^' 
with  that  of  the  individuals  who  abstained  from  'big 
liabit;  without  telling  us  that  tlie  latter  ado])ted  ;i! 
of  those  substitutes  which  prudential  experience  W(m,.  , 
dictate. 

146.  The  writer  is  strongly  impressed  with  the  belief, 
that  the  result,  in  this  and  in  many  similar  cases,  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  neglect  of  such  precautions.  It  is  well 
known,  that,  in  losalities  where  zymotic  *  poisons  are 
indigenous,  no  condition  of  the  healthy  system  is  so 
obnoxious  to  their  influence  as  that  which  is  natural  to 
it  on  first  rising  in  the  morninor,  when  the  stomach 
is  empty,  the  pulse  comparatively  feeble,  and  the  heat- 
producing  power  nearly  at  its  minimum.  The  nutritive 
actions  which  have  been  talvin!^;  ])l:ieo  daring!;  i-Mv.se  have 

ox  Ox. 

prepared  the  nervous  and  muscular  apparatus  for  renewed 
activity ;  but  this  has  been  accomplished  at  the  expense 
of  the  blood,  from  which  there  has  been  a  continual 
drain,  both  for  the  regeneration  of  the  tissues,  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  animal  heat.  It  is  within  the  expe- 
rience of  most  persons  that  nervous  and  muscular  exertion 
is  loss  efficiently  sustained,!  and  external  cold  less  fully 


u 


*  Zymotic,  produced  by  fermentation. 

t  The  -writer  can  speak  feelingly  on  this  subject,  being  himself 

unable  to  walk  a  couple  of  miles  upon  the  empty  stomach  of  early 

morning,  without  extreme  languor  almost  amounting  to  syncope, 

although  four  or  five  times  that  amount  would  usually  be  per- 

14 


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158 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


resisted,  at  this  period  than  at  any  other ;  and  the  re- 
commendation of  experience  to  "  take  something  to  keep 
the  cold  out  of  the  stomach-"  is  here  fully  justified  upon 
physiological  principles.  But  it  does  not  hence  follow, 
that  alcoholic  stimulants  constitute  the  best  means  of 
protecting  the  system  against  the  influence  of  morbific 
agencies  :  on  the  contrary,  we  shall  find  strong  reason  to 
believe  that  other  means,  properly  employed,  would  be  as 
efficacious  at  the  time,  and  would  have  a  more  perma- 
nently beneficial  effect. 

147.  A  man,  previously  in  the  enjoyment  of  vigorous 
health,  and  not  accustomed  to  depend  upon  alcoholic 
stimulants,  will  derive  all  the  protection  he  can  require 
from  taking  his  first  solid  meal  before  he  exposes  himself 
to  the  cold,  damp,  or  pestilential  miasmata  whose  influ- 
ence is  to  be  resisted ;  and  the  moderate  use  of  hot  tea. 
coffee,  or  cocoa  will  help  to  diffuse  a  genial  warmth 
through  his  body,  which  is  more  enduring  than  that 
which  results  from  the  ingestion  of  spirituous  liquors. 
In  this  way,  the  stomach  will  bo  wholesomely  employed, 
new  material  will  be  supplied  to  the  blood,  the  circulation 
will  be  quickened  without  being  excited,  the  firmness  of 
the  pulse  will  be  increased,  and  the  heat-producing  power 
will  be  augmented ;  and  all  this  in  a  manner  strictly 
accordant  with  the  normal  economy  of  the  bodily  system. 
On  the  other  hand,  although  the  use  of  spirits,  by  pro- 
ducing a  temporary  excitement  of  the  circulation,  will 
probably  render  the  system  less  obnoxious  to  morbific 
agencies  than  if  it  be  exposed  to  them  before  ita  dormant 
energies  have  been  in  any  way  aroused,  yet  we  can 

formed  by  him  after  breakfast  with  scarcely  an  approach  to  fatigue. 
—  Author. 


IN   SUSTAINING   TUE   VITAL    POWERS. 


lo9 


the  re- 
:  to  keep 
ied  upon 
e  follow, 
leans  of 
morbific 
eason  to 
lid  be  as 

perma- 

vigorous 

dcoholic 

I  require 

himself 

30  influ- 

hot  tea. 

warmth 

that 

liquors. 

iployed, 

culation 

oness  of 

g  power 

strictly 

system. 

by  pro- 

on,  will 

morbific 

lormant 

we  can 

>  fatigue. 


scarcely  anticipate  that  they  can  be  as  favorable  to  the 
sustenance  of  its  energy  (a  previously  healthy  and  vigor- 
ous condition  being  supposed)  as  persistence  in  the  regu- 
lar habits  to  wliich  it  has  been  accustomed.  For  it  has 
been  already  shown,  that  the  continued  endurance  of  cold 
is  not  favored  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  hquors,  but  on  the 
contrary  is  impaired  by  it ;  and  where  cold,  therefore, 
acts  concurrently  with  zymotic  poisons,  and  favors  their 
operation  by  the  depression  of  the  vital  powers  which  it 
induces,  we  should  feel  certain  that  those  means  would  be 
most  conducive  to  the  resisting  power  of  the  system  which 
are  most  eflScient  in  maintaining  its  standard  warmth. 

148.  So  far  as  we  are  acquainted  with  the  bearings  of 
experience  on  this  question,  they  are  decidedly  favorable 
to  the  view  here  advocated ;  namely,  that,  where  a  healthy 
state  of  the  system  has  been  previously  maintained  with- 
out the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors,  the  operation  of 
morbific  agents  will  be  more  efficiently  warded  off  by  a 
continuance  of  the  abstinent  plan  than  by  recourse  to 
stimulants ;  provided  that  the  same  precaution  be  exer- 
cised by  the  disciple  of  abstinence  as  by  the  spirit-drinker, 
in  not  exposing  himself  to  the  morning  air  without  a  for- 
tification of  "  the  inner  man."  For  we  do  not  see  that 
the  circumstances  of  tropical  or  those  of  cold  or  temperate 
chmates  differ  as  regards  the  susceptibility  of  the  system 
to  zymotic  poisons,  in  any  other  particular  than  their 
.temperature ;  but  this  will  act  in  more  than  one  way ; 
for  whilst,  on  the  one  hand,  the  depressing  influence  of 
cold  upon  the  body  will  tend  to  increase  its  susceptibility, 
the  agency  of  heat,  on  the  other,  will  augment  the  potency 
of  the  poison.  Now,  that  abstinence  from  spirits  dimin- 
ishes, instead  of  increasing,  the  hability  of  the  body  to 


U 


160 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOUOL 


the  influence  of  pestilential  miasms  in  warm  climates, 
provided  that  other  precautions  be  duly  taken,  we  have 
not  merely  the  individual  experience  of  Mr.  Gardner,  Mr. 
Waterton,  and  others  {§§  138,  139),  in  addition  to  the 
testimony  of  many  medical  observers,  but  the  important 
evidence  derived  from  the  march  of  the  84th  regiment 
along  a  road  "proverbial  for  cholera  and  dysentery," 
without  a  single  fresh  attack  of  these  complaints  (§  140). 
Here  the  "  pint  of  hot  coffee  and  biscuit "  were  cei-tainly 
to  the  full  as  efficacious  as  "  the  daily  morning  dram, 
which  soldiers  on  the  march  in  India  almost  invariably 
take ; "  and  there  is  no  adequate  reason  why  the  coflFee 
should  not  have  an  equal  value  in  colder  countries,  when 
employed  with  the  larger  allowance  of  heat-producing 
food  which  will  be  there  required, 

149.  When  the  remote  effects  of  the  two  systems  are 
contrasted,  there  can  be  little  hesitation  in  assigning  the 
preference  to  the  abstinent  plan.  For,  the  object  being  to 
sustain  the  utmost  equability  of  health,  and  especially 
to  avoid  that  depressed  condition  which  sooner  or  later 
supervenes  upon  states  of  undue  excitement,  it  is  obvious 
that,  when  all  the  nutritive  functions  are  regularly  and 
vigorously  discharged,  it  is  unwise  to  interfere  with  their 
performance  by  the  use  of  alcoholic  hquors,  which,  if 
sufficient  to  produce  either  general  stimulat*  or  excite- 
ment of  any  one  function,  must  involve  as  i.  nsequence 
a  corresponding  diminution  of  the  normal  activity  at  some 
subsequent  period.  It  is  quite  true  that  tliis  may  not 
manifest  itself  at  once ;  so  that  for  weeks,  months,  and 
years,  the  vigor  of  the  system  may  seem  to  be  efficiently 
maintained,  and  morbific  agencies  to  be  perfectly  kept  at 
bay,  by  the  habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoWic 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


IGl 


stimulus ;  to  which  the  beneficial  result  will  then  be  pro- 
bably attributed.  But  the  trial  is  not  completed  in  weeks, 
months,  or  years ;  it  must  last  for  the  w^hole  of  life ;  and  if 
it  be  true,  as  we  shall  presently  endeavor  to  show,  that  the 
continued  employment,  however  moderate,  of  small  quan- 
tities of  alcoholic  liquors  favors,  if  it  does  not  necessarily 
induce,  an  early  exhaustion  of  the  vital  powers,  it  cannot 
be  questioned  that  the  system  will  then  be  left  in  a  state 
of  peculiar  susceptibility  to  the  influence  of  zymotic  poi- 
sons and  other  morbific  agencies.  It  is  well  known  that 
persons  of  regular  habits  and  good  ordinary  health,  who 
have  long  resided  in  countries  where  intermittent  fevei*s 
prevail,  are  frequently  attacked  by  them  when  their  vital 
powers  begin  to  dechne  with  advancing  years ;  and,  if 
that  dechne  be  hastened  by  the  previous  over-excitement 
of  alcohohc  liquors,  the  influence  of  these  morbific  causes 
will  be  earlier  and  more  powerfully  e>  erted. 

150.  These  theoretical  deductions  are  not  merely 
sanctioned  by  such  results  of  experience  as  can  be 
brought  to  bear  directly  upon  them ;  for  they  are  in 
complete  harmony  with  the  fiicts  universally  admitted 

regard  to  the   peculiar  susceptibility  of  habitually 


m 


intemperate  persons,  and  especially  of  those  whose  con- 
stitutions have  been  broken  down  by  the  combined 
influence  of  intemperance  and  advancing  years,  to  attacks 
of  fever,  cholera,  and  other  pestilential  disorders  {'^  65). 
For,  we  again  repeat,  if  the  cause,  when  acting  with  its 
greatest  potency,  is  attended  with  a  result  which  no  one 
can  hesitate  in  accepting,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  attribute 
*to  the  same  cause,  acting  with  diminished  intensity,  but 
over  a  longer  period  of  time,  a  result  of  a  similar  nature ; 
even  though  this  may  be  so  long  postponed,  that  its 


I 


If 


162 


SUPPOSED  rSES  OF  ALCOHOL 


dependence  on  that  cause  is  in  danger  of  being  over- 
looked. 


151.  We  have  abundant  evidence,  then,  not  merely 
in  the  experience  of  individuals,  but  in  that  of  large 
bodies  of  men,  that  the  most  vigorous  health  may  be 
maintained,  under  circumstances  usually  regarded  as 
most  trying  to  the  power  of  bodily  and  mental  endu- 
rance, without  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  stimulants. 
Such  evidence  is  afforded  by  the  numerous  ships  that 
are  travelling  every  part  of  the  wide  ocean,  whose  crews, 
pledged  to  the  total-abstinence  principle,  maintain  a 
degree  of  health  and  vigor  which  cannot  bo  surpassed ; 
by  the  many  workshops  of  every  kind,  in  which  the 
severest  labof  is  endured  with  a  constancy  at  least  equal 
to  that  of  the  drinkers  of  alcoholic  beverages ;  by  troops 
executing  toilsome  marches  in  the  sultry  heat  of  the 
torrid  zone,  and  through  the  pestilential  atmosphere  of 
tropical  marshes,  who  find  the  "cup  of  cold  water" 
more  refreshing  and  sustaining  than  the  spirituous  drinks 
which  hurry  so  many  of  their  comrades  to  an  early  grave ; 
and  by  numbers  of  men  and  women,  in  every  rank  of 
life,  in  every  variety  of  condition,  and  subjected  to  every 
kind  of  mental  and  bodily  exertion,  who  luivc  given  the 
principle  of  total  abstinence  a  fair  trial,  and  have  lx)me 
their  willing  testimony  to  its  beneficial  results.  And, 
where  such  is  the  case,  there  can  scarcely  be  a  question 
that  this  system  is  preferable  to  the  habitual  use,  how- 
ever moderate,  of  fermented  liquors.  For,  if  the  appetite 
prompt  to  the  use  of  an  adequate  amount  of  nourishment 
to  repair  the  waste  of  the  system ;  if  the  stomach  perform 
its  action  with  due  energy,  and  supply  to  the  absorbent 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


163 


vessels  the  material  for  fresh  blood  in  a  state  of  clue 
preparation;  if  the  circulation  be  carried  on  with  that 
equable  regularity  which  is  most  favorable  to  the  actions 
to  which  it  is  subservient ;  if  the  various  tissues  draw 
from  the  current  of  nutritious  fluid  the  materials  which 
they  severally  require,  and  apply  these  materials  to  their 
own  maintenance  and  regeneration ;  if  the  lungs  freely 
exhale  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  evolved  by  their  exer- 
cise, and  introduce  the  oxygen  which  is  needed  for  a 
renewal  of  the  effort ;  and  if  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  skin, 
by  the  constant  discharge  of  their  respective  offices,  eli- 
minate from  the  blood  the  other  products  of  the  waste  of 
the  system,  and  thus  keep  it  in  the  state  of  purity  most 
favorable  to  the  discharge  of  its  multitudinous  functions ; 
in  a  word,  if  all  the  actions  concerned  in  the  maintenance 
of  the  fabric  be  already  discharged  with  that  vigor  and 
uniformity  which  constitutes  health,  —  why  should  we 
attempt  to  alter  them  by  means  of  agents,  which,  if  they 
produce  any  efiect  whatever  on  the  system,  can  only 
operate  by  producing  a  departure  from  that  perfect  bal- 
ance of  the  several  parts  of  the  nutritive  functions  which 
it  is  so  desirable  to  maintain,  and  so  difficult  to  restore 
when  perverted?  Let  us  examine  these  questions  in 
more  detail. 


VI.     CONSEQUENCES    OF    THE    HABITUAL    "MODERATE    ■ 
USE   OF  ALCOHOLIC   LIQUORS. 

152.  Effect  vpon  the  General  System  and  Excretory 
Organs,  —  If  the  natural  appetite  be  already  good 
enough  to  give  a  rehsh  to  the  food  which  the  system 
requires,  can  the  artificial  production  of  an  increased 


164 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


appetite  be  necessary  or  desirable  ?  And,  if  the  stomach 
be  abeady  capable  of  digesting  and  preparing  as  much 
nutriment  as  is  required  to  keep  up  the  solids  of  the  blood 
to  their  proper  amount,  can  any  but  prejudicial  conse- 
quences result  from  forcing  it  to  dispose  of  more  7  Two 
classes  of  evils  may  be  expected  to  proceed  from  such  a 
system :  in  the  first  place,  the  habitual  introduction  of 
more  alimentary  material  into  the  circulating  current 
than  the  nutritive  functions  can  appropriate,  must  pre- 
dispose to  disorder  of  the  system  in  general ;  and, 
secondly,  by  constant  reliance  upon  an  artificial  stimu- 
lus, the  natural  powers  of  the  stomach  itself  must  be  in 
danger  of  becoming  gi-adually  impaired. 

153.  The  efiect  upon  the  system  at  large  of  an  habi- 
tual introduction  of  more  alimentary  material  than  the 
nutritive  functions  can  appropriate  seems  to  vary  with 
the  temperament.  In  some  individuals,  they  are  converted 
into  blood,  so  that  the  normal  amount  of  that  liquid 
undergoes  an  augmentation ;  thereby  inducing  a  state  of 
plethora,*  which  is  favorable  to  local  congestions  and 
inflammatory  diseases  of  various  organs,  and  which  espe- 
cially predisposes  to  hemorrhage,  —  this  being  an  efibrt 
of  nature  to  relieve  the  undue  turgescence.  But,  in  other 
constitutions,  the  superfluous  aliment  would  seem  to  be 
never  so  far  vitalized  and  assimilated,  but  is  from  the  first 
destined  to  excretion;  the  lungs,  the  liver,  the  kidney, 
and  the  skin  are  thus  called  upon  to  remove,  not  merely 
the  products  of  the  normal  waste  or  disintegration  of  the 
system,  but  also  the  superfluous  non-assimilated  matter ; 
and  hence  they  are  brought  into  a  state  of  undue  func- 
tional activity,  which  cannot  but  render  them  peculiarly 
*  Plethora,  repletion,  too  great  fulness. 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE   VITAL  POWERS. 


165 


susceptible  of  derangement.  The  excretory  action  of  the 
lungs,  however,  is  chiefly  regulated  (as  already  shown, 
»§>  127)  by  the  temperature ;  so  that,  when  it  is  dimin- 
ished by  external  warmth,  more  remains  to  be  accom- 
plished by  the  other  depurating  organs;  and  hence  any 
excess  in  diet  is  more  likely  to  have  a  prejudicial  eflfect 
upon  the  latter  in  warm  climates,  and  during  the  summer, 
than  in  a  colder  atmosphere. 

154.  This  is  precisely  what  experience  teaches.  From 
habitual  excess  in  diet,  in  temperate  climates,  in  persons 
not  of  the  sanguineous  temperament,  disorders  both  of 
the  liver  and  kidney  are  very  apt  to  arise  ;  those  being 
most  liable  to  the  former  who  have  not  the  power  of 
generating  fatty  tissue  at  the  expense  of  the  surplus 
of  non-azotized  food ;  and  those  being  most  liable  to  the 
latter,  in  whom  the  too  free  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  occa- 
sions an  undue  determination  of  blood  to  the  kidneys.  On 
the  other  hand,  habitual  excess  of  food  in  warm  climates 
usually  manifests  itself  first  in  disorders  of  the  liver ; 
since  the  diminished  excretion  of  carbon  by  the  lungs 
causes  the  blood  to  proceed  to  the  liver  more  highly 
charged  with  that  element,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the 
consumption  of  that  part  of  the  biliary  secretion  which 
should  be  normally  oxygenated  and  carried  off  through 
the  lungs  is  interfered  with.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
skin,  whose  functions  are  greatly  increased  in  activity, 
comes  to  the  assistance  of  the  kidneys  in  disposing  of  the 
superfluity  of  azotized  ahment ;  a  considerable  amount  of 
urea  *  being  daily  excreted  through  the  former  channel,  f 

*   Urea,  the  substance  of  urine. 

t  See  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Landerer,  of  Athens,  in  Brit,  and 
For.  Med.-Chir.  Review,  vol.  i.  p.  341. 


1i 


li 


166 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


This  result  of  what  is  accounted  the  "  moderate  "  use  of 
alcohohc  liquors  in  warm  climates,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing the  appetite  and  stimulating  the  digestive  powers 
of  the  stomach,  is  much  dwelt  upon  by  writers  ou  tropical 
diseases ;  who  represent  it  as,  in  the  long-run,  not  less 
hurtful  than  that  excess  which  produces  effects  more 
immediately  and  obviously  pernicious.  In  this  point  of 
view,  it  ranks  with  high-seasoned  dishes,  and  those  other 
seducing  provocatives  to  the  diminished  appetite  and 
lessened  digestive  powers  of  the  residents  in  such  cli- 
mates, wliich,  by  occasioning  the  habitual  ingestion  of 
more  food  than  the  system  requires,  are  among  the  most 
fertile  sources  of  tropical  disease. 

155.  Now,  as  already  remarked,  almost  every  cause 
of  disease  acts  on  the  human  system  with  greater  potency 
in  tropical  than  in  temperate  regions ;  and  we  have  op- 
portunities, therefore,  in  the  study  of  tropical  diseases, 
of  perceiving  the  agency  of  causes  whose  tardiness  of 
operation  under  other  circumstances  interferes  with  our 
recognition  of  their  real  results.  It  cannot,  then,  be 
imagined  that  even  a  small  habitual  excess  in  diet,  induced 
by  the  stimulating  action  of  fermented  liquors,  can  be 
without  its  remote  consequences  upon  the  general  sys- 
tem, even  though  it  may  be  for  a  time  sufficiently  com- 
pensated by  increased  activity  of  the  excreting  organs.* 
And  the  disorders  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  which  are  so 
frequent  among  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  this 
mode  of  living  for  many  years,  without  (as  they  believe) 
any  injurious  consequences,  are  as  surely  to  be  set  down 
to  it  as  are  those  congestive  and  inflammatory  diseases 


*  Ejocreting  orgam,  those  which  separate  the  refuse  matter. 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


167 


of  the  abdominnl  viscera  which  so  much  more  speedily 
follow  upon  habitual  excess  in  warm  climates.  For  the 
excreting  organs  cannot  be  always  kept  in  a  condition  of 
excessive  activity ;  like  other  parts  of  the  system,  they 
suffer  sooner  or  later  from  too  great  an  exaltation  of  their 
function ;  and  if  this  should  not  pass,  as  it  often  docs, 
into  an  inflammatory  condition,  it  is  almost  cerluin  to  be 
remotely  followed  by  a  state  of  depressed  activity,  in 
which  the  nutrition  of  the  organ  becomes  impaired,  so 
that  it  is  left,  during  the  remainder  of  life,  in  a  state 
by  no  means  equal  to  the  performance  of  its  regular 
duties. 

156.'  In  asserting  that  to  the  ordinary  use  of  fermented 
liquors  in  "  moderate  "  quantity,  during  early  and  middle 
life,  and  to  the  habitual  excess  in  diet  (however  slight) 
to  which  they  prompt,  we  are  to  attribute  many  of  the 
chronic  disorders  of  the  excreting  organs  which  are 
amongst  the  most  common  ailments  of  advancing  years, 
we  may  seem  to  go  beyond  the  positive  teachings  of  ex- 
perience. The  consequences  are  so  remote,  that  wc  may 
not  appear  to  be  justified  in  attributing  them  to  the 
causes  we  have  assigned.  But  let  it  be  remembered,  that 
we  have  multitudes  of  other  cases,  in  which  the  long- 
continujed  agency  of  morbific  causes  of  comparatively  low 
intensity  has  been  proved  to  be  in  the  end  not  less  potent 
than  the  administration  of  a  poison  in  a  dose  large  enough 
to  produce  its  obviously  and  immediately  injurious  effects. 
Thus  a  man  who  would  be  rapidly  suffocated  by  immer- 
sion in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid  may  hve  for 
weeks,  months,  or  years,  in  an  atmosphere  shghtly  con- 
taminated by  it,  without  experiencing  any  evil  effects 
which  he  can  distinctly  connect  with  its  influence ;  and, 


168 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


yet  who  will  now  deny  that  the  constant  action  of  this 
minute  dose  of  aerial  poison  is  insidiously  undei*mining 
his  vital  powers,  and  preparing  him  to  become  the  easy 
prey  of  the  destroying  pestilence?  So,  again,  we  see 
that  a  brief  exposure  to  the  pestilential  atmosphere  of  the 
swamps  of  the  Guinea  coast  is  often  sufficient  to  induce 
an  attack  of  the  most  rapidly  fatal  forms  of  tropical  fever ; 
but  the  dweller  among  the  marshy  lands  of  temperate 
climates,  inhaling  the  paludal  *  poison  in  its  less  concen- 
trated form,  becomes  after  a  time  afflicted  Avith  inter- 
mittent fever;  and  no  one  has  any  hesitation  in  here 
recognizing  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  resident  in  a  town  where  the  insufficiency 
of  the  drainage  causes  the  surface-moisture  to  be  imper- 
fectly carried  off,  and  to  be  not  merely  charged  with  the 
malaria  of  vegetable  decomposition,  but  with  the  mias- 
matic emanations  of  animal  putrescence,  may  long  be 
free  from  serious  disorder,  if  the  cause  do  not  operate 
in  sufficient  intensity ;  yet  he  becomes  liable  in  a  greatly 
increased  degree  to  the  operation  of  .olmost  every  mor- 
bific agent,  and  especially  of  the  various  forms  of  fever- 
poison  ;  and  no  one  who  has  paid  even  a  slight  degree  of 
attention  to  the  results  of  the  sanitary  inquiries  which 
have  now  been  carried  on  for  many  years  past  hesitates 
in  admitting  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  between 
insufficiency  of  drainage  and  the  higher  rate  of  mortality 
in  undraincd  localities,  although  not  only  days  and  weeks, 
but  months  and  years,  may  be  required  for  the  operation 
of  the  cause  upon  the  animal  system. 

157.  Should  we  not,  then,  be  running  counter  to  all 


*  Paludal,  mai'shy. 


/    i 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


1G9 


analogy,  if  wo  do  not  hold  ourselves  ready  to  admit, 
that  such  an  habitual  excess  in  diet  as  is  favored  by  the 
moderate  use  of  alcohoho  stimulants,  and  a  consefi[uent 
habitual  over-exertion  of  the  excretory  organs,  must  bo 
likely  to  have  remotely  injurious  results  7  —  and  are  we 
not  justified  in  assuming  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  to 
exist,  when  we  find  such  results  occurring  precisely  as 
we  should  predict  1  If  the  medical  man  has  no  hesitation 
in  regarding  those  severer  derangements  of  the  excretory 
organs  which  are  so  common  amongst  those  who  commit 
habitual  excesses  in  eating  and  drinking  as  the  conse- 
quence of  those  excesses,  why  should  he  refrain  from 
attributing  the  milder  but  more  protracted  disorders  of 
the  same  organs  to  the  less  violent  but  more  enduring 
operation  of  the  same  cause?  "The  little  I  take  does 
me  no  harm  "is  the  common  defence  of  those  who  are 
indisposed  to  abandon  an  agreeable  habit,  and  who  cannot 
plead  a  positive  benefit  derived  from  it ;  but,  before  such 
a  statement  can  be  justified,  the  individual  who  makes  it 
ought  to  be  endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  to  be 
able  to  have  present  to  his  mind  the  whole  future  history 
of  his  bodily  fabric,  and  to  show  that,  by  reducing  the 
amount  of  his  excess  to  a  measure  which  produces  no 
immediately  injurious  results,  he  has  not  merely  post- 
poned its  evil  consequences  to  a  remote  period,  but  has 
kept  himself  free  from  them  altogether.  The  onus  pro- 
bandi*  lies  with  those  who  assume  the  absence  of  a 
connection  which  is  indicated  by  every  fact  with  which 
we  are  acquainted. 
158.  Although  we  have  hitherto  been  considering  the 


•  Onus  probandi,  burden  of  proof. 


15 


170 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF   ALCOHOL 


effects  of  the  "moderate"  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants 
upon  the  excretory  organs,  as  consisting  simply  in  aug- 
menting the  amount  of  labor  they  are  called  upon  to 
perform,  by  favoring  the  reception  of  too  large  an  amount 
of  alimentary  matter  into  the  system,  yet  there  is  another 
point  of  view  iinder  which  it  will  be  convenient  here  to 
examine  its  results ;  namely,  the  direct  influence  of  the 
alcoholic  stimulus  upon  the  organs  themselves.    This  in- 
fluence may  for  a  time  be  corrective  of  the  other,  and  may 
thus  aid  in  concealing  and  retarding  its  evil  consequences. 
For  we  have  seen  (§  57)  that  the  introduction  of  a  small 
quantity  of  alcohol  into  the  circulation  has  a  direct  action  > 
upon  the  kidney,  increasing  the  determination  of  blood  to 
that  organ,  and  tending  to  augment  its  secretion ;  and  it 
is  highly  probable  that  it  has  a  similar  effect  upon  the 
liver,  more  especially  as  the  blood  which  has  received 
the  alcohol  by  the  absorbent  action  of  the  gastric  veins  * 
passes  through  that  organ  before  proceeding  to  any  other 
part  of  the  system.    In  this  manner,  the  call  for  increased 
action  of  these  two  depurating!  organs  being  met  by 
augmented  functional  activity  on  their  part,  a  system  of 
compensation  is  maintained,  whereby  the  effects  of  excess 
are  neutralized  for  a  time,  —  but  only  for  a  time ;  for, 
as  surely  as  any  organ  is  habitually  exerted  in  an  ex- 
cessive degree,  so  surely  must  its  vital  powers  be  prema- 
turely exhausted,  the  remoteness  of  the  period  at  which 
the  flagging  of  its  power  begins  to  manifest  itself  being 
inversely  to  the   degree  of  habitual  over-excitement. 
Hence  we  have  additional  reason  for  imputing  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  those  chronic  disorders  of  the 

*  Gastric  veins,  veins  of  the  stomach, 
t  Depurating,  separating  refuse  matter. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL  POWERS. 


171 


'  i 


excretory  organs,  to  wliich  reference  has  been  more 
especially  made,  to  the  habitual  employment  of  alcoholic 
liquors  in  what  is  ordinarily  considered  to  be  a  "  moder- 
ate "  amount,  and  regarded  as  perfectly  consistent  with 
health,  if  not  rec^uircd  to  maintain  it. 

159.  It  would  be  absurd,  however,  to  affirm  that  such 
diseases  always  proceed  from  this  cause ;  since  those  who 
practise  total  abstinence  from  alcoholic  hquors  arc  by  no 
means  proof  against  other  errors  in  dietetics ;  and,  in  so 
far  as  they  habitually  take  in  more  food  than  their  sys- 
tem needs,  they  will  be  liable  to  suffer  from  disorder 
of  the  organs  whose  duty  it  is  to  eliminate  the  waste. 
But  they  will  be  much  sooner  warned  of  the  excess  they 
ha\re  committed,  if  the  stomach  refuses  to  digest  the 
superfluity,  instead  of  being  forced  by  artificial  stimula- 
tion to  an  undue  exertion  of  its  power ;  and  an  attack  of 
indigestion,  by  early  giving  a  salutary  check  to  the  prac- 
tice, may  ward  off  its  remoter  consequences.  It  is  the 
freedom  from  such  checks,  up  to  a  certain  time  of  life, 
which  encourages  in  those  who  habitually  use  fermented 
liquors  in  "moderation,"  and  who  at  the  same  time 
practise  habitual  though  slight  excess  in  the  amount  of 
sohd  food  which  they  consume,  the  delusive  behef  that 
in  neither  case  are  they  doing  themselves  any  harm. 

160.  Effect  upon  the  Stomach.  —  Such,  then,  are  the 
consequences  to  the  system  at  largo,  which  theory  and 
experience  join  to  indicate,  as  resulting  from  such  an 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  as  stimulates  the  appe- 
tite to  desire,  and  the  stomach  to  digest,  a  larger  amount 
of  food  than  is  necessary  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
body ;  and  we  have  next  to  inquire  into  the  effects  it  pro- 
duces upon  the  stomach  itself.   We  have  already  described 


172 


SUPPOSED  USES  OP  ALCOHOL 


the  admitted  results  of  what  is  commonly  regarded  as 
*'  excess;  "  and  we  shall  therefore  at  present  limit  our- 
selves to  the  inquiry,  whether  the  "moderate"  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  is  likely  to  be  productive  of  any  injurious 
consequences,  as  regards  this  important  organ.  All  our 
knowledge  of  the  action  of  stimulants  would  lead  to  the 
conclusion,  that,  when  once  the  habit  of  employing  them 
has  been  established,  and  the  stomach  is  come  to  rely  (as 
it  were)  upon  the  extraneous  aid  which  they  afford,  its 
power  of  performing  its  duty  without  such  aid  must  be 
impaired.  The  case  is  very  similar  to  that  of  sleep.  A 
person  in  health,  and  not  subjected  to  any  unfavorable 
influences,  is  naturally  disposed  to  pass  as  much  time  in 
repose  as  his  system  needs  for  its  renovation ;  but,  if  he 
were  long  to  accustom  himself  to  the  use  of  a  narcotic, 
he  would  find  himself  completely  unable  to  sleep  without 
it.  And  experience  shows,  in  like  manner,  that  those 
who  have  long  been  habituated  to  the  moderate  use  of 
alcoholic  beverages  with  their  meals  are  seldom  able  to 
discontinue  them  without  a  temporary  loss  of  appetite 
and  of  digestive  power,  unless,  indeed,  their  place  be 
supplied  by  the  more  wholesome  excitement  of  fresh  air 
and  exercise. 

161.  With  many  persons,  the  evil,  so  far  as  the 
stomach  is  concerned,  may  seem  to  be  confined  to 
the  induction  of  this  state  of  reliance  on  artificial  aid. 
Year  after  year  passes  away,  without  any  indication  that 
its  powers  have  been  overtasked,  or  that  any  unhealthy 
change  has  taken  place  in  its  circulation  or  nutrition; 
and  the  usual  dose  of  the  alcoholic  stimulant  appears 
still  to  produce  its  wonted  effect.  But  this  does  not  show 
that  the  practice  is  really  innocuous.    We  have  seen  Ihat, 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


173 


whilst  a  potent  dose  of  a  poison  speedily  manifests  its 
action  by  the  violence  of  its  effects,  the  repeated  intro- 
duction of  minute  doses  is  not  really  inoperative,  although 
the  effects  are  not  speedily  apparent.  If  the  stomach  be 
not  an  exception  to  the  general  law  of  the  action  of  sti- 
mulants upon  the  animal  body,  we  should  expect  that,  by 
the  habitual  over-excitement  of  its  function,  in  however 
trifling  a  degree,  its  vital  energy  will  undergo  a  prema- 
ture depression ;  and  that  the  result  of  the  moderate  use 
of  alcohohc  stimulants  will  manifest  itself,  sooner  or  later, 
in  diminution  of  the  digestive  power.  The  earhest  indi- 
cation of  this,  in  most  instances,  is  the  demand  for  the 
augmentation  of  the  stimulus  to  produce  the  same  result ; 
the  amount  which  was  at  first  sufficient  to  whet  the  appe- 
tite, and  increase  the  digestive  power,  being  no  longer 
found  adequate.  If  the  demand  be  yielded  to,  and  the 
quantity  of  the  stimulus  be  augmented,  the  original  bene- 
fit seems  for  a  time  to  be  derived  from  it ;  but,  after  the 
stomach  has  become  tolerant  of  the  liquor,  that  which  at 
first  excited  it  to  increased  functional  activity  does  so  no 
longer,  and  a  further  increase  is  called  for ;  until  what 
began  in  "moderation"  ends  in  positive  excess,  with  all 
its  consequent  evils.  But,  supposing  this  demand  not  to 
be  felt,  or  not  to  be  yielded  to,  the  same  "moderate" 
allowance  being  indulged  in  for  a  long  course  of  years, 
we  should  anticipate  that  injurious  consequences,  though 
perhaps  long  postponed,  must  ultimately  show  themselves; 
and  that  such  is  the  case  is  unfortunately  the  experience 
of  a  vast  number  who  suffer  by  that  "loss  of  tone"  of 
the  stomach  which  is  so  common  an  attendant  of  advancing 
years,  for  the  too  great  activity  to  which  the  organ  has 
been  previously  forced,  during  the  long  period  of  early 

16* 


174 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


and  middle  life.  And  although  the  common  idea,  that 
alcoholic  liquors,  when  taken  in  small  quantities,  have  a 
ionic  *  property,  may  render  it  difficult  for  some  to  coin- 
cide in  the  conclusion  that  the  real  effect  of  the  habitual 
use  of  even  this  small  quantity  must  be  of  the  opposite 
kind,  —  exhaustive  instead  of  tonic,  —  yet,  as  this  idea 
has  no  other  foundation  than  the  temporary  assistance 
derived  from  the  stimulating  powers  of  alcohol,  it  ought 
not  to  prevent  our  recognition  of  the  consequences  which 
might  be  theoretically  expected  to  proceed  from  its  long- 
continued  action. 

162.  It  is  not  here  maintained,  however,  that  the 
habitual  employment  of  alcoholic  stimulants  in  small 
quantity,  even  when  coupled  with  habitual  excess  in  the 
amount  of  food  ingested,  uniformly  stands,  to  the  loss  of 
appetite  and  digestive  power  so  frequent  with  the  advance 
of  years,  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect ;  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  habit  may  be  persevered  in  by 
some  individuals  throughout  a  long  life,  without  the  mani- 
festation of  any  injurious  results;  whilst,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  cannot  but  be  admitted  that  the  disorder  in  ques- 
tion may  be  induced  in  other  ways.  But  the  existence 
of  exceptional  cases  by  no  means  invalidates  the  argu- 
ment based  upon  general  experience,  any  more  than  our 
occasionally  meeting  with  individuals  who  have  daily  con- 
sumed a  bottle  of  spirits,  and  have  yet  enjoyed  a  hearty 
old  age,  warrants  us  in  rejecting  the  evidence  which  indi- 
cates that  such  a  consumption  wottWr  have,  in  by  far  the 
larger  proportion  of  mankind,  a  decided  tendency  to 
shorten  life.     Nor  does  it  follow,  that,  because  the  loss 


*  Tonic,  strengthening. 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


175 


of  digestive  power  may  be  justly  attributed  to  other 
causes  when  this  one  has  been  wanting,  it  has  been  inope- 
rative when  present.  In  fact,  there  can  be  little  doubt, 
that,  amongst  the  class  of  men  who  are  engaged  in  active 
mental  occupation,  and  who  justify  a  moderate  use  of 
alcohohc  liquors  on  the  ground  that  it  keeps  them  "up 
to  their  work,"  the  expenditure  of  nervous  power,  conse- 
quent upon  that  undue  exertion  of  the  cerebral  functions 
which  has  been  aided  1>;'^  the  continual  over-stimulation, 
has  a  large  share  in  the  result. 

163.  Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System.  —  Every 
medical  man  is  familiar  with  cases  in  which  the  "wear 
and  tear"  of  an  over-active  life  has  been  sustained  with 
little  apparent  loss  of  power  for  perhaps  a  long  series  of 
years  ;  but  in  which  there  is  a  sudden  failure  both 
of  mental  and  bodily  vigor,  as  manifested  in  deficiency  of 
power  of  continued  mental  exertion,  depression  of  spirits, 
want  of  appetite,  enfeebled  digestion,  and  the  whole  train 
of  disordered  actions  which  is  consequent  upon  this  con- 
dition. It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  such  a  state  mav  arise 
quite  independently  of  the  agency,  direct  or  indirect,  of  ha- 
bitual stimulation;  one  instance,  in  particular,  is  strongly 
present  to  the  writer's  recollection,  in  which  it  supervened 
on  a  long  course  of  excessive  mental  exertion,  in  an  indi- 
vidual who  was  most  moderate  in  every  thing  but  the 
labor  of  his  brain,  and  who  rarely  or  never  sought  for 
artificial  support  from  alcoholic  stimulants.  But  the  most 
common  case  is  that  in  which  two  sets  of  causes  are  in 
action  together.  An  habitual  system  of  over-exertion  of 
the  nervous  system  may  be  maintained  for  a  longer  time 
by  many  persons,  with  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants, than  without  them ;  and  thus  the  delusion  -is  kept 


I 


mm 


176 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


up,  that  the  strength  is  not  reallj  overtasked :  when  the 
fact  is,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  prolongation  of  the  term 
of  over-exertion,  by  the  repeated  application  of  the  sti- 
mulus, is  really  expending  more  and  more  of  the  powers 
of  the  nervous  system,  and  preparing  for  a  more  com- 
plete prostration  at  a  later  period. 

164.  The  temporary  advantage,  then,  which  is  thus 
gained  is  very  dearly  purchased.  The  man  who  ha- 
bitually abstains,  not  merely  from  alcoholic  liquors,  but 
from  other  artificial  provocatives  (misnamed  supports) 
to  the  endurance  of  mental  activity,  is  early  warned  by 
the  failure  of  his  intellectual  energy  and  cheerful  tone 
of  spirits,  that  he  is  overtasking  his  brain ;  whilst  his 
stomach  tells  the  same  tale  in  another  way,  — the  failure 
of  power  to  digest  that  which  the  fabric  really  needs  for 
its  regeneration,  being  indicative  of  an  exhaustion  of 
nervous  energy.  A  short  period  of  rest  and  change,  in 
such  a  condition,  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  renovation 
of  the  system,  and  for  the  recovery  of  the  mental  and 
bodily  vigor.  But  the  case  is  very  different  when  the 
effort  has  been  sustained,  for  a  lengthened  series  of  years, 
by  means  of  the  delusive  support  afforded  by  alcoholic 
liquors;  for,  as  the  excessive  expenditure  of  nervous 
power  has  been  greater,  so  is  the  exhaustion  more  com- 
plete ;  and,  as  the  stomach  has  been  longer  over-excited 
and  overtasked,  its  tone  is  the  more  seriously  injured, 
not  merely  by  the  depression  consequent  upon  its  own 
overwork,  but  by  the  impairment  of  the  nervous  power 
which  is  required  for  its  due  activity.  Thus,  then, 
although  the  consequences  of  habitual  over-exertion  of 
the  brain  may  be  less  speedily  felt  when  the  stomach  is 
kept  up  by  alcoholic  stimulants  to  a  state  of  extraordinary 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


177 


activity  of  supply ;  and  although,  in  like  manner,  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  may  cause  the  sto- 
mach to  be  less  susceptible  of  the  loss  of  the  accustomed 
energy,  —  yet,  when  the  crisis  does  come,  each  condition 
aggravates  the  other;  the  effects  of  undue  disintegration  of 
the  nervous  matter  being  more  difficult  to  repair,  when  the 
nutritive  apparatus  is  depressed  in  functional  power ;  and 
the  restoration  of  the  tone  of  the  stomach  being  impeded 
by  the  deficiency  of  nervous  energy,  when  this  has  been 
lowered  by  excessive  action  of  the  brain.  The  length  of 
time  then  required  for  the  cure  is  proportional  to  the 
duration  of  the  causes  which  have  induced  the  malady ; 
and  tedious  and  difficult  is  the  process  of  restoration,  as 
every  medical  man  well  knows.  We  shall  hereafter  have 
occasion  {§§  227,  228)  to  consider  the  best  methods  of 
medical  and  hygienic  *  treatment  for  this  condition,  and 
shall  show  that  the  measures  which  experience  now 
proves  to  be  the  most  efficacious  means  of  restoring  the 
vigor  of  the  system  are  precisely  such  as  the  physio- 
logist would  recommend,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
preceding  views  of  the  causation  of  the  morbid  state  in 
question. 

165.  We  have  thus  been  led  to  consider  the  remote 
influences  of  the  prolonged  and  habitual  use  of  fermented 
liquors,  in  however  "  moderate"  a  quantity,  upon  the 
digestive  apparatus,  the  excretory  organs,  and  the  ner- 
vous system ;  and  we  have  found  that  we  may,  with  the 
highest  probability,  if  not  with  absolute  certainty,  attri- 
bute many  of  the  chronic  disorders  which  affect  these 
organs  in  advancing  life  —  especially  that  loss  of  func- 


Ilygienic,  health-producing. 


178 


SUPPOSED  rSES  OF  ALCOHOL 


tional  power  which  is  frequently  the  earliest  stage  of 
such  disorders,  and  which,  if  appropriately  treated  in 
the  first  instance,  might  not  proceed  further  —  to  the 
excessive  action  to  which  they  have  been  subjected,  under 
the  stimulating  influence  of  alcoholic  beverages.  In  so 
far,  therefore,  as  the  use  of  these  beverages  causes  or 
favors  such  excessive  action,  it  must  in  the  end  be  hurt- 
ful, rather  than  beneficial,  to  the  general  health,  —  not- 
withstanding that  its  temporary  efiect  may  appear  to  be 
wholesome  and  exhilarating,  —  or  at  any  rate,  if  negative 
for  good,  to  be  also  negative  for  evil.  But  we  have 
further  to  consider,  whether  this  inference  is  borne  out 
by  the  effects  of  alcoholic  liquoi-s,  taken  habitually  in 
small  quantities,  upon  the  functions  of  circulation  and 
nutrition. 

166.  Effect  upon  the  Circulation.  —  It  may  be  diffi- 
cult to  prove,  that  the  ingestion  of  a  small  quantity  of 
alcoholic  liquor,  taken  in  conjunction  with  food,  has  any 
decidedly  stimulating  influence  upon  the  general  circula- 
tion; since  a  certain  acceleration  of  the  pulse,  and  an 
increase  in  its  fulness,  normally  occur  during  digestion ; 
and  the  augmentation  produced  by  the  alcohol  may  be  so 
trifling  as  to  be  scarcely  detectible.  Such  augmentation, 
however,  is  certainly  produced  by  the  imbibition  of  a 
quantity  usually  accounted  "moderate;"  and  we  have 
now  to  inquire,  whether  it  can  recur  habitually,  through 
a  long  series  of  years,  without  producing  injurious  re- 
sults. There  cannot  be  a  doubt,  that,  in  a  healthy 
person,  the  rate  of  the  circulation  is  proportioned  to  the 
amount  of  functional  activity  of  the  principal  organs  of 
the  body.  We  find  that  it  depends,  in  great  degree, 
upon  muscular  exertion,  as  put  forth  in  the  maintenance 


IN  SUSTAINING  THE  VITAL  POWERS. 


179 


of  the  erect  posture,  and  still  more  in  active  exercise ; 
but  it  may  be  accelerated  also  by  exalted  activity  of  the 
nervous  system,  which  sets  up  an  unusual  demand  for 
blood  in  the  brain ;  and  its  increase  of  rate,  during  the 
digestive  process,  appears  to  be  connected  with  the  large 
supply  of  blood  then  transmitted  to  the  chylopoietic 
viscera,*  and  required  for  the  due  performance  of  their 
several  offices.     Now,  whenever  the  circulation  under- 
goes any  considerable  acceleration,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
a  recurrence  of  local  congestions,  arising  from  the  want 
of  power,  on  the  part  of  the  vessels  of  some  particular 
organ,  to  allow  their  current  to  pass  at  the  same  rate 
with  the  rest.     Of  this  we  have  a  familiar  example  in 
that  accumulation  of  blood  in  the  pulmonary  arteries 
which  is  liable  to  take  place  in  most  persoiis  during 
violent  muscular  exertion,  producing  the  feeling  of  being 
"  out  of  breath,"  and  which  is  particularly  marked  in 
those  in  whom  there  exists  some  disordered  condition  of 
the  lungs  that  obstructs  the  passage  of  blood  through 
their  capillaries. 

167.  There  are  few  persons,  however,  in  whom  there 
is  not  some  tendency  to  an  irregularity  of  the  circula- 
tion, which  manifests  itself  in  a  torpor  in  some  parts, 
and  an  undue  activity  in  others.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon forms  of  this,  especially  among  individuals  who 
work  their  brains  more  than  their  muscles,  is  a  torpor 
of  the  current  in  the  extremities,  and  an  undue  activity 
in  the  cephalic  circulation ;  so  that  the  head  is  habitually 
heated,  whilst  the  hands  and  feet  are  cold.  Now,  where 
such  is  the  case,  we  find  that  even  the  normal  accelera- 


*  Chylopoietic  viscera,  organs  which  form  chyle. 


180 


SUPPOSED  USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


tion  produced  by  the  ingestion  of  food  aggravates  this 
disordered  condition;  so  that  the  face  becomes  more 
flushed,  and  the  head  more  hot,  after  meals,  than  at  any 
other  time.*  Precisely  the  same  result  is  observable  in 
such  persons,  after  the  use  of  even  a  small  quantity  of 
alcohoUc  stimulant ;  and  the  habitual  production  of  it  can- 
not but  be  injurious,  as  tending  to  establish  that  inequality 
which  it  should  be  our  endeavor  to  counteract. 

168.  Similar  inequalities  exist  in  di£ferent  individuals, 
in  regard  to  other  organs.  Thus  it  very  frequently 
happens,  that  the  liver  is  the  part  in  wliich  a  disposition 
to  torpidity  of  circulation  exists ;  and  congestion  of  its 
portal  system  of  vessels  must  stagnate  the  whole  of  the 
circulation  through  the  chylopoietio  viscera,  from  which 
the  blood  of  that  system  is  derived.  Any  such  disposi- 
tion to  local  congestion  must  operate  with  increased  force 
in  producing  general  irregularity  of  the  circulation,  when 
the  rate  of  movement  is  unduly  accelerated ;  just  as  the 
outlets  to  a  theatre,  which  suffice  to  discharge  the  entire 
audience  in  a  few  minutes,  when  the  pressure  towards 
them  is  uniform  and  regular,  are  speedily  blocked  up, 
and  produce  a  stagnation  of  the  entire  current ;  whilst, 
under  the  influence  of  an  alarm  of  fire,  every  one  is 
rushing  toward  them  with  undue  haste.  And,  as  we 
have  seen  that  hepatic  and  abdominal  congestions  are 
among  the  ordinary  results  of  excess  in  the  use  of  alco- 
holic liquors  ('J  155),  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  even 


*  The  acceleration  produced  by  muscular  exercise  'will,  of 
course,  be  unattended  by  this  result ;  the  cause  of  the  acceleration 
being  such  as  to  divert  the  current  from  the  brain  to  the  limbs, 
and  to  make  it  pass  through  them  with  energy  and  rapidity.  — 

AUTHOB. 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   I'OWEIIS. 


181 


their  moderate  employment  must  aggravate  any  tendency 
to  such  derangement  of  the  circulation,  when  it  already 
exists.  No  such  derangement  can  be  habitual,  and  bo 
thus  continually  liable  to  aggravation,  without  laying  a 
foundation  for  other  more  serious  disorders.  So,  again, 
as  we  have  seen  that  habitual  excess  in  alcoholic  liquors 
has  a  tendency  to  produce  determination  of  blood  towards 
the  kidneys,  and  thereby  to  favor  the  development  of 
many  serious  diseases  in  those  organs  (*§»•§>  54 — 58),  we 
can  scarcely  refuse  to  admit,  that,  where  the  least  ten- 
dency to  disordered  action  already  exists  in  them,  it  must 
be  aggravated  by  the  habitual  recurrence  of  such  a  slight 
increase  in  the  afflux  of  blood  to  them  as  would  of  itself 
attract  no  attention. 

169.  If  it  be  said,  that,  in  thus  reasoning  upon  proba- 
bihties,  we  are  going  further  than  experience  warrants 
us  in  doing,  we  must  again  take  leave  to  refer  to  the 
argument  from  analogy  on  which  we  have  already  dwelt 
(^  156),  as  a  justification  of  our  somewhat  theoretical 
propositions.  The  whole  tendency  of  modem  pathologi- 
cal research  has  been  to  show,  that  the  human  frame,  if 
endowed  with  an  ordinary  amount  of  inherent  vigor,  is 
no  otherwise  incident  to  disease  than  as  it  is  in  various 
ways  subjected  to  the  agency  of  causes  which  produce  a 
departure  from  the  normal  play  of  its  functions ;  and 
that,  although  old  age  and  decay  are  inevitable,  diseases 
are  not,  being  preventible  in  the  precise  proportion  in 
which  we  are  able  to  discover  and  eradicate  their  causes. 
And  when  we  can  clearly  trace  a  relation  of  cause  and 
eflFect  between  obvious  and  flagrant  violations  of  the  rules 
of  health  and  the  occurrence  of  certain  forms  of  acute 

disease,  we  seem  justified  in  assuming,  that  minor  but 
16 


182 


SUPPOSED   USES  OF  ALCOHOL 


habitual  violations  of  the  same  kind  must  be  allowed  to 
participate,  at  any  rate,  in  the  production  of  chronic 
diseases  of  the  same  order.  The  very  nature  of  chronic 
dibcaso  implies  a  prolonged  action  of  the  causes  in  which 
it  arises ;  for  no  such  determinate  alteration  of  the  nor- 
mal functions  as  it  involves  can  be  at  all  accounted 
for  by  any  temporary  causes  of  perversion ;  these  either 
inducing  a  transitory  disorder,  or,  if  acting  with  suflS- 
cient  intensity,  exciting  an  attack  of  acute  disease.  In 
chronic  diseases,  we  find  that  the  organ  has,  so  to  speak, 
groivn  to  its  perverted  action ;  so  that  no  curative 
measure  is  permanently  beneficial  which  does  not  first 
act  by  withdrawing  the  cause  of  the  original  departure 
from  the  healthy  state,  and  by  placing  the  organ  in  the 
best  condition  for  its  recovery.  We  are  fully  justified, 
therefore,  by  all  that  we  know  of  the  causes  of  disease, 
in  asserting  that  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  hquors  by 
healthy  individuals,  even  in  small  quantities,  is  likely, 
when  sufficiently  protracted,  to  favor  the  development 
of  such  chronic  disorders  as  originally  depend  upon  an 
irregularity  in  the  movement  of  the  circulating  current, 
or  are  liable  to  be  augmented  by  it. 

170.  Effect  upon  Nutrition.  —  There  appears,  more- 
over, to  be  an  adequate  amount  of  evidence,  that  the 
practice  in  question  has  an  unfavorable  influence  upon 
the  nutritive  operations,  by  which  the  alimentary  ma- 
terials first  converted  into  blood  are  applied  to  the 
rfcgeneration  of  the  living  tissues.  This  influence  is 
not  so  clearly  manifested  in  the  ordinary  course  of  these 
operations  —  which  indeed  is  not  demonstrably  affected 
by  it  —  as  in  the  extraordinary  demand  which  is  made 
upon  the  regenerative  powers  for  the  repair  of  injuries 


IN  SUSTAINING   THE  VITAL   POWEKS. 


183 


occasioned  by  accident  or  disease.  It  in  well  known  to 
surgeons,  that  the  most  desirable  of  all  nio<u  -t  by  which 
the  reparation  of  wounds  can  Ik)  effected  is  tlio  simple 
adhesive  process  known  as  "union  by  the  first  inten- 
tion;" and  that  where,  in  consequence  of  loss  of  sub- 
stance, union  by  the  first  intention  cannot  Ix)  effectetl, 
the  most  favorable  method  is  that  which  is  termed  the 
"  scabbing  process ;  "  in  which  a  hard  crust  being  formed 
upon  the  surface,  so  as  to  protect  it  from  the  iri'itating 
action  of  the  atmosphere,  a  continued  growth  or  re- 
formation of  tissue  takes  place  beneath,  without  any 
interruption  from  inflammatory  action,  until  complete 
filling-up  has  been  effected,  and  a  new  cutaneous  surface 
is  formed  beneath  the  scab.  But  it  too  frecjucntly  hap- 
pens that  the  reparative  processes  cannot  be  induced 
to  take  place  after  either  of  these  fashions,  but  that 
inflammatory  action  is  set  up  in  the  wound,  and  matter 
forms  between  its  lips  or  beneath  the  scab,  rendering 
its  detachment  necessary,  and  thus  re-converting  the 
wound  into  an  open  sore.  The  healing  of  this  sore  must 
be  accomplished  by  the  much  less  healthy  process  of 
suppurating  granulation ;  during  the  progress  of  which, 
a  large  amount  of  nutritive  material  runs  to  waste  as 
purulent  discharge,  whilst  a  great  degree  of  constitu- 
tional irritation  is  often  set  up ;  and  the  best  termination 
of  which  is  the  formation  of  a  cicatrix,  that  subsequently 
undergoes  an  unsightly  and  often  inconvenient  contrac- 
tion, from  which  the  new  tissue  formed  under  a  scab  is 
free. 

171.  Now,  the  occurrence  of  the  first  of  these  modifi- 
cations of  the  healing  process  is  an  obvious  indication  of 
such  a  healthful  condition  of  the  nutritive  operations  as 


184 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL 


can  repair  the  effects  of  an  injury  in  the  most  complete 
manner,  with  the  least  possible  waste  of  nutritive  mate- 
rial, and  with  the  most  entire  absence  of  constitutional 
disturbance ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  impossibihty 
of  procuring  it,  even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances of  rest,  fresh  air,  and  wholesome  ahment,  indi- 
cates that  the  nutritive  functions  are  not  in  their  normal 
condition.  Amongst  the  lower  animals  we  seldom  find 
injuries  repaired  in  any  less  favorable  mode,  unless  the 
part  be  placed  in  circumstances  adverse  to  this  healthy 
action.  But  among  "civilized"  communities  of  men, 
the  case  is  very  different;  for  the  occurrence  of  the 
scabbing  process,  in  the  case  of  any  but  trivial  wounds, 
is  the  exception,  not  the  rule ;  being,  in  fact,  so  rare 
that  many  surgeons  never  think  of  attempting  to  bring 
it  about.  Now,  that  there  is  nothing  essentially  different 
in  the  constitution  of  man  which  places  him  in  this 
respect  at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  lower 
animals,  appears  from  the  fact,  that  all  who  have  visited 
"savage"  nations,  in  whom  more  constant  exposure  to 
air  is  practised,  and  who  enjoy  immunity  from  many 
causes  of  disease  which  exist  in  civihzed  communities, 
have  been  struck  with  the  facility  with  which  wounds 
heal  among  them,  and  with  their  remarkable  freedom 
from  that  constitutional  disturbance  which,  amongst  our- 
selves, almost  invariably  follows  severe  injuries.  Thus, 
Hawkesworth,  in  his  voyage  to  New  Zealand,  makes 
particular  mention  of  the  "facility  with  which  wounds 
healed  that  had  left  scars  behind  them,  and  that  we  saw  in 
a  recent  state ;  when  we  saAv  the  man  who  had  been  shot 
with  the  musket-ball  through  the  fleshy  part  of  the  arm, 
his  wound  seemed  to  be  so  well  digested,  and  in  so.  fair  a 


IN   SUSTAINING   THE   VITAL   POWERS. 


185 


way  of  being  perfectly  healed,  that,  if  I  had  not  known 
no  application  had  been  mjide  to  it,  I  should  certainly 
have  inquired  with  a  very  interesting  curiosity  after  the 
vulnerary  herbs  and  surgical  art  of  the  country."  Of 
these  people,  he  states  that  at  that  period  water  Avas 
their  solo  and  universal  liquor. 

172.  Now,  it  would  be  absurd  to  maintain,  that  the 
habitual  moderate  use  of  fermented  hquors  is  the  sole 
reason  of  the  rarity  of  this  healthful  operation  of  the 
reparative  process  amongst  ourselves ;  since  a  multitude 
of  other  departures  from  the  laws  of  health  are  con- 
tinually practised  by  almost  every  member  of  a  civilized 
community.  But,  if  we  look  to  the  unquestionable  fact, 
that  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of  fermented  liquors  pro- 
duces a  condition  altogether  opposed  to  the  healthful 
performance  of  these  processes,  so  that  the  slightest 
scratch  or  abrasion  may  give  rise  to  a  rapidly  fatal  attack 
of  inflammation  (»§>  (53),  it  can  scarcely  be  denied,  that, 
where  a  minor  departure  from  the  normal  condition 
shows  itself,  and  the  same  cause  has  been  in  action  in 
less  intensity,  that  departure  may  be  reasonably  consid- 
ered, in  part  at  least,  as  its  eftect.  And  this  conclusion 
is  remarkably  confirmed  by  the  surgical  cxijcrience  of 
the  late  campaigns  in  India,  on  occasions  on  which  there 
had  been,  from  accidental  causes,  an  interruption  in  the 
usual  supply  of  spirits.  Thus,  ^Er.  llavelock^  in  his 
"  Narrative,"  in  reference  to  the  wounded,  after  the  vic- 
tories in  India,  observes  :  "  The  medical  officers  of  this 
army  have  distinctly  attributed  to  their  previous  ab- 
stinence from  strong  drink  the  rapid  recovery  of  the 
wounded  at  Ghuznee."  And  Mr.  Atkinson,  in  his  work 
on  Affghanistan,  is  more  explicit,  stating  that  ''all  the 
16» 


180 


SUPPOSED   USES   OF   ALCOHOL.    ETC. 


\i 


n 


ti 


swortl-cuts,  which  were  very  numerous,  and  many  of 
them  very  deep,  united  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner ; 
which  we  decidedly  attributed  to  the  men  having  been 
without  rum  for  the  previous  six  weeks.  In  consequence, 
there  was  no  inflammatory  action  to  produce  fever,  and 
interrupt  the  adhesion  of  the  parts." 

173.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  then,  we 
seem  entitled  to  draw  the  general  conclusion,  that,  in 
the  "  average  man,"  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors, 
in  moderate  or  even  in  small  quantities,  is  not  merely 
unnecessary  for  the  maintenance  of  bodily  and  mental 
vigor,  but  is  even  unfavorable  to  the  permanent  enjoy- 
ment of  health,  even  though  it  may  for  a  time  appear  to 
contribute  to  it.  For,  as  it  is  justly  remarked  by  Dr. 
Robertson,  "  that  man  only  is  in  good  health  who  recovers 
rapidly  from  the  simple  accidents  incidental  to  his  occu- 
pation, and  from  the  simple  disorders  incidental  to  his 
humanity  and  to  the  climate  he  lives  in,  and  who  can 
bear  the  treatment  that  those  accidents  or  those  disorders 
demand ; "  and,  if  such  be  not  the  case,  we  may  feel 
confident,  that,  however  great  the  temporary  power  of 
exertion  may  be,  such  power  is  destined  to  give  way  at 
a  period  much  earlier  than  that  of  its  normal  duration. 
And  if  it  be  true,  as  we  have  endeavored  to  show,  that 
the  effect  of  the  habit  is  not  merely  to  induce  certain 
predispositions  to  disease  by  its  own  agency,  but  also  to 
favor  almost  any  of  those  which  may  already  exist  in  a 
latent  form,  we  have  an  additional  right  to  aflSrm,  that 
even  the  most  moderate  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors 
becomes  to  the  "average  man"  positively  injurious,  if 
protracted  for  a  sufiicient  length  of  time  to  allow  of  the 
development  of  its  effects. 


187 


CHAPTER  III. 

ARE  THERE  ANY  SPECIAL  MODIFICATIONS  OF  IHE 
BODILY  OR  MENTAL  CONDITION  OF  MAN,  SHORT 
OF  ACTUAL  DISEASE,  IN  WHICH  THE  OCCASIONAL 
OR  HABITUAL  USE  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  MAY 
BE  NECESSARY  OR  BENEFICIAL? 

174.  There  appear  to  be  three  classes  of  cases  in 
which  recourse  may  be  had  with  temporary  advantage 
to  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors :  those,  in  the  first  place, 
in  which  there  is  a  demand  for  some  extraordinary  exer- 
tion of  the  animal  powers,  and  in  which  the  occurrence 
of  subsequent  depression  may  not  be  an  adequate  objec- 
tion to  the  employment  of  a  stimulus  that  enables  the 
system  to  meet  it ;  those,  in  the  second  place,  in  which 
there  is  a  deficiency  of  the  proper  sustenance,  and  in 
which  alcohol  serves  as  a  heat-producing  article  of  food ; 
and  those,  in  the  third  place,  in  which  there  is  a  want 
of  sufiicient  vigor  on  the  part  of  the  system  itself  to 
digest  and  assimilate  the  aliment  which  it  really  needs 
for  its  support. 

I.     DEMAND   FOR  EXTRAORDINARY   EXERTION. 

175.  Of  the  first  class,  the  following  appropriate 
example  may  be  extracted  from  the  letter  of  Dr.  J.  D. 
Hooker,  alreailv  cited  :   "I  know  of  only  (mo  occasion," 


wtmmmmmmfmk 


188 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


i 


I 


he  says,  "  on  which  the  use  of  spirits  appeared  indispen- 
sable ;  and  that  was  when  a  httle  more  exertion  at  the 
crowning  of  a  mighty  and  long-continued  effort  was 
demanded.  Thus  the  ship,  when  saihng  in  the  paek- 
ice,  is  sometimes  beset,  or  falls  to  leeward  into  the 
lee-ice.  This  takes  two  or  three  minutes  —  but,  if  there 
is  much  wind,  it  takes  many  hours  —  to  get  her  out. 
Not  being  in  command,  the  sails  are  of  no  use ;  and  the 
ice  prevents  her  from  moving  in  any  way  but  with  it  to 
leeward.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  only  way 
to  get  her  out  is  by  fastening  ropes  from  the  ship  to  the 
larger  masses  of  ice,  and  Avarping  her  out  by  main  force 
against  the  wind.  Now,  I  have  seen  every  officer  and 
man  in  the  ship  straining  at  the  capstan  for  hours  together, 
through  snow  and  sleet,  with  the  perspiration  running 
down  our  faces  and  bodies  like  water.  Towards  the  end 
of  such  a  struggle,  at  the  mighty  crowning  effort,  I  have 
seen  a  little  grog  work  wonders.  I  could  not  have 
drunk  hot  coffee  without  stopping  to  cool ;  nor,  if  I  had, 
do  I  think  it  would  have  supplied  the  temporary  amount 
of  strength  which  was  called  for  on  the  spot  under  cir- 
cumstances hke  this.  These,  however,  are  extreme  cases, 
which  do  not  affect  the  sailor  in  his  ordinary  condition, 
and  which  any  ship  might  be  well  prepared  for." 

176.  It  must  be  within  the  experience  of  most  persons, 
that  a  very  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  stimulus  has  been 
of  similar  efficacy  in  sustaining  the  nervo-muscular  energy 
under  some  temporary  effort,  wliich  circumstances  called 
for,  and  to  which  the  system,  exhausted  by  previous 
fatigue,  would  not  otherwise  have  been  equal.  And  the 
writer  can  speak  from  his  own  knowledge  of  its  corre- 
sponding effect  in  quickening  and  freshening  the  mental 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


189 


pspen- 
It  the 
was 
pack- 
0  the 
there 
T  out. 
dthe 
it  to 
way 
to  the 
force 
and 
ether, 


power,  during  a  brief  period,  through  which  it  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  sustained.  Of  course,  in  every  such 
case,  a  corresponding  depression  is  subsequently  felt; 
but  this  depression  is  rather  traceable  to  the  fatigue  of 
over-exertion  than  to  the  re-action  consequent  upon  over- 
excitement.  For,  in  the  cases  alluded  to,  the  eflfect  of  the 
alcoholic  liquor  is  not  to  quicken  the  circulation,  or  to 
exalt  any  of  the  functions  above  their  normal  activity, 
but  merely  to  keep  them  up  to  par ;  and  its  use  for  such 
a  purpose  is  therefore  free  from  many  of  the  objections 
which  have  been  urged  against  its  habitual  employ- 
ment. 

177.  But  it  must  not  hence  be  supposed,  that  recourse 
to  alcoholic  liquors  can  habitually  be  had  with  impunity 
for  purposes  of  this  kind.  Every  kind  of  ' '  forcing ' '  must 
be  in  the  end  injurious  to  the  vital  powers,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  those  of  the  nervous  system;  and  the  more 
frequently  and  violently  it  is  practised,  the  more  speedily 
may  we  expect  that  functional  derangement  will  manifest 
itself  Extreme  overtasking  of  its  poAvers  is  often  so 
immediately  followed  by  apoplexy,  paralysis,  epilepsy, 
mental  derangement,  or  fatuity,  that  no  one  has  any 
hesitation  in  regarding  these  as  the  natural  results  of 
the  previous  immoderate  exertion ;  and  we  appear  equally 
justified  in  attributing  similar  results  to  similar  causes, 
however  remote  the  results  may  be,  where  causes  less 
potent  have  been  in  continual  or  frequently  repeated 
operation.  For  every  such  irregularity  tends  to  derange 
the  nutrition  of  the  system;  and,  if  a  renewal  of  the 
irregularity  should  take  place  before  the  effects  of 
the  preceding  derangement  have  been  recovered  from, 
they  are,  of  course,  aggravated ;  and  thus  a  cumulative 


11 


•MMMMana 


190 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


result  is  produced,  and  a  permanently  disordered  state 
of  nutrition  established,  which  manifests  itself  at  last  in 
some  serious  and  settled  form  of  cerebral  disease. 

178.  The  case  resembles  that  of  the  racer,  excited  to 
put  forth  his  utmost  speed,  or  the  jaded  roadster  goaded 
to  a  temporary  improvement  of  his  pace  by  the  applica- 
tion of  the  spur.  The  spur  gives  no  strength ;  but,  like 
the  dram  to  the  sailor  toiling  at  the  capstan,  or  the  glass 
of  wine  to  the  public  speaker  wearied  with  his  previous 
exertions,  it  calls  forth  the  most  vigorous  exercise  of 
the  remaining  strength.  The  racer  may  fall  dead  on  the 
spot ;  the  roadster  may  sink  from  exhaustion ;  but 
the  spur  has  only  been  the  indirect  means  of  bringing 
about  this  catastrophe,  the  real  cause  of  it  being  the 
undue  exertion  which  it  has  called  forth.  And  in  like 
manner,  when  recourse  has  been  had  to  alcoholic  liquors 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  power  to  meet  some  extraor- 
dinary demand  upon  the  bodily  or  mental  energy,  and 
the  amount  used  has  been  merely  such  as  to  meet  that 
demand,  we  ought  to  attribute  the  subsequent  exhaus- 
tion rather  to  the  violence  of  the  effort  which  has  been 
put  forth,  than  to  the  stimulus,  trifling  in  itself,  by  which 
the  system  was  rendered  capable  of  making  it.  The 
occasional  dram  or  glass  of  wine  would  of  itself  have 
produced  but  little  mischief  in  comparison ;  and  its  con- 
sequences might  have  been  manifested  in  some  other 
way .  But  the  frequent  over-exertion  of  the  vital  powers, 
especially  those  of  the  nervous  system,  must  ultimately 
tell  upon  the  fabric,  under  whatever  kind  of  excitement 
it  is  called  forth. 

179.  However  desirable,  then,  it  may  be  to  avoid  the 
necessity  for  such  immoderate  exertion,  it  can  scarcely 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


191 


ite 
in 


' 


be  denied,  that  occasions  will  arise  in  the  experience  of 
some  persons,  in  which  the  temporary  assistance  derived 
from  alcohohc  liquors  could  scarcely  be  replaced  by  any 
other.  When  the  choice  lies  between  the  easy  and 
satisfactory  performance  of  the  prescribed  duty,  and  the 
discharge  of  it  as  a  task  which  must  be  got  through  at 
all  hazards  by  the  most  determined  bracing  up  of  the 
powers  for  its  execution,  there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  that,  if  the  former  can  be 
procured  by  the  use  of  such  a  small  dose  of  alcohol  as 
shall  merely  raise  the  vital  powers  for  a  time  to  their 
usual  energy,  it  will  be  followed  by  less  of  subsequent 
exhaustion  than  the  latter.  But  again,  he  would  repeat, 
—  and  he  cannot  do  so  too  often,  or  too  earnestly,  — 
that  the  habitual  recourse  to  such  a  practice  is  fraught 
with  the  greatest  prospective  danger ;  since  it  encourages 
the  delusive  idea,  that  the  exertion  which  is  thus  for  a 
time  sustained  is  really  doing  no  injury  to  the  system ; 
besides  which,  it  is  next  to  impossible  that  the  frequent 
use  of  alcoholic  liquora,  however  moderate,  can  be  per- 
severed in,  for  any  length  of  time,  without  favoring 
the  production  of  that  disordered  state  of  nutrition  of  the 
brain  which  the  irregular  activity  of  the  nervo'S  system 
has  of  itself  so  marked  a  tendency  to  generate.  It  should 
rather  be  the  aim  of  those  who  have  accustomed  them- 
selves to  such  assistance  to  avoid  the  necessity  (so  far  as 
may  be  possible)  for  such  extra-exertion,  and  to  prepare 
themselves  to  meet  it,  when  it  is  indispensable,  by  care- 
ful and  constant  attention  to  all  the  rules  of  health. 
The  most  beneficial  results  from  such  a  use  of  stimulants 
are  to  be  experienced  by  those  who  are  habitually  absti- 
nent ;  since  the  quantity  of  alcohohc  liquor  which  they 


MMWi 


192 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


require  for  the  purpose  is  extremely  small ;  and  whatever 
injurious  effects  it  may  produce  will  be  more  likely  to  be 
dissipated,  when  a  considerable  interval  elapses  before  it 
is  again  resorted  to.  When  alcohohc  liquor  is  employed 
as  an  ordinary  beverage,  the  quantity  required  to  give 
the  desired  aid,  on  the  occasions  in  question,  is  such 
as  must  of  itself  exert  a  prejudicial  influence  on  the 
system. 

180.  Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  cases,  are  those  in 
which  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  may  be  found  beneficial 
in  assisting  to  fortify  the  system  against  a  temporary 
exposure  to  cold  or  damp,  separately,  or  in  combination. 
We  have  already  examined  into  the  reputed  efficacy  of 
alcoholic  liquors  in  favoring  the  resistance  to  cold,  and 
have  found  reason  to  adopt  the  conclusion  that  this  re- 
putation is  altogether  fallacious  as  regards  the  power  of 
continued  endurance.  There  can  scarcely  be  a  question, 
however,  that  although,  considered  simply  as  a  heat- 
producing  material,  alcohol  is  inferior  in  some  important 
particulars  to  such  oleaginous  matters  as  can  be  readily 
introduced  into  the  current  of  blood,  it  has  for  a  time 
the  power  of  keeping  off  the  chilling  influence  of  severe 
external  cold,  in  virtue  of  the  augmented  rapidity  of  the 
circulation  which  it  induces,  and  particularly  of  the  de- 
termination of  blood  which  it  favors  towards  the  vessels 
of  the  skin.  And  this  effect  seems  to  be  exerted  Avith 
still  greater  benefit  when  cold  and  damp  are  acting 
together;  their  depressing  influence  being  kept  at  bay 
for  a  time  by  the  moderate  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants, 
so  that  no  injurious  result  is  subsequently  felt  from  an 
exposure  which  might  otherwise  have  been  followed  by  a 
severe  "cold,"  an  attack  of  rheumatism,  or  some* other 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL   CAPES. 


193 


it 
)d 
ve 

3h 

le 


malady,  as  determined  by  tlic  idiosyncrasy  *  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

181.   It  is  not  here  argued,  however,  that  alcoholic 
liquors  afford  the  best  means  of  resisting  such  influences. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  within  the  experience  of  most  per- 
sons, that  muscular  exertion,  where  it  can  be  employed, 
is  a  far  better  means  of  keeping  up  that  vigor  of  the 
circulation  which  shall  resist  the  influence  of  the  external 
chill,  than  the  use  of  any  stimulants  whatever  in  a  state 
of  bodily  inactivity.     But,  where  circumstances  prevent 
a  resort  to  the  former,  and  the  choice  lies  among  the 
best  internal  means  of  protection,  —  as  in  the  case  of  a 
traveller  exposed  to  cold  and  wet  on  the  top  of  a  coach,  — 
we  seem  justified  in  believing,  that,  if  the  chilling  influ- 
ence is  powerful  and  likely  to  be  of  short  duration,  it 
may  be  betler  resisted  by  a  stimulating  dose  of  alcoholic 
liquor  than  in  any  other  way.      But,  if  the  resisting 
power  is  to  be  prolonged,  such  a  course  is  most  un- 
desirable ;  for  the  system  is  never  so  obnoxious  to  the 
depressing  influence  of  cold  and  damp  as  when  it  is 
already  in  a  buite  of  depression  resulting  from  previous 
over-stimulation  ;  and  the  use  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other 
hot  beverages,  with  solid  food,  which  shall  aid  in  per- 
manently sustaining  the  heat  of  the  system,   is  then 
unquestionably  to  be  preferred.     Here,  again,  we  would 
remark,  that  the  habitu[il  abstainer  has  decidedly  the 
advantage,  since  a  very  small  amount  of  the  stimulus 
is  sufficient,  as  in  the  former  case,  to  produce  the  desired 
result ;  and  that,  if  recoui-se  be  too  frequently  had  to  it, 
the  remote  consequences  of  alcoholic  excitement  may  be 
expected  to  manifest  themselves. 


17 


*  Idiosyncrasy,  peculiarity  of  constitution. 


194 


USE   OF   ALCOHOL 


II.    DEFICIENCY    OF   OTHER   ADEQUATE   SUSTENANCE. 

182.  The  second  class  of  cases  in  which  the  use  of  a 
small  amount  of  alcoholic  liquors  seems  beneficial,  or  at 
any  rate  justifiable,  is  that  in  which  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  the  proper  sustenance,  so  that  the  alcohol  supplies  the 
means  of  maintaining  the  animal  heat,  for  which  the  ani- 
mal tissues  would  otherwise  be  attacked.  Under  such 
circumstances,  too,  the  temporary  elevation  of  the  ha- 
bitually depressed  state  of  the  animal  power  seems  rather 
beneficial  than  injurious.  Of  this  we  have  a  remark- 
able example  in  the  well-known  case  of  the  mutiny  of 
the  Bounty,  from  Captain  Bligh's  Narrative,  of  which 
the  following  passages  are  extracted:  "At  daybreak  I 
served  to  every  person  a  teaspoonful  of  rum,  our  limbs 
being  so  much  cramped  that  we  could  scarcely  move 
them."  Further  on :  "  Being  unusually  wet  and  cold, 
I  served  to  the  people  a  teaspoonful  of  rum  each,  to 
enable  them  to  bear  with  their  distressing  situation." 
And  again:  "  Our  situation  was  miserable  ;  always  wet, 
and  sufiering  extreme  cold  in  the  night,  without  the  least 
shelter  from  the  weather.  The  little  rum  we  had  was  of 
the  greatest  service :  when  our  nights  were  particularly 
distressing,  I  generally  served  a  teaspoonful  or  two  to 
each  person,  and  it  was  always  joyful  tidings  when  they 
heard  of  my  intention."  Now,  however  decidedly  we 
may  give  the  preference  to  hot  tea,  coflfee,  or  cocoa,  with 
plenty  of  nourishing  food,  over  alcoholic  liquors,  in,  facK, 
litating  the  endurance  of  such  an  exposure,  it  can  scarcely 
be  questioned,  that,  in  circumstances  such  as  those  of 
Captain  Bligh's  crew,  the  administration  of  the  few  drops 
of  spirit  was  of  the  most  important  service,  both  Us  sup- 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


lOo 


^E. 


plying  com])U3tible  muterial,  and  as  enabling  the  poweix 
of  their  system,  already  seriously  depressed,  from  being 
fatally  reduced  by  the  privations  to  which  the  party  was 
subjectefl. 

183.  The  beneficial  influence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
alcoholic  stimulus,  in  contributing  to  the  endurance 
of  bodily  labor  under  circumstances  peculiarly  trying, 
and  under  the  disadvantage  of  a  deficient  allowance  of 
animal  food,  hiis  been  demonstrated  on  an  extensive  scale 
by  the  hygienic*  experience  of  the  large  prison  at 
Nismes,  called  the  "Maison  Centrale,"  of  which  an  ac- 
count has  been  recently  published  by  the  chief  physician, 
M.  Boileau  Castelnau,  Avho  has  been  connected  with  the 
prison  for  the  last  twenty-five  years.f  Of  this  account  an 
abridgment  will  be  here  given,  as  the  facts  are  considered 
by  the  writer  as  of  very  great  importance,  in  disprov- 
ing, by  the  experience  of  a  large  number  of  individuals, 
the  position  of  those  who  assert  that  under  no  circum- 
stances can  the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  be 
otherwise  than  injurious.  This  prison  usually  contains 
a  population  of  1,200  convicts,  most  of  them  adults,  the 
minimum  age  being  eleven.  Its  wards  have  been  habitu- 
ally over-crowded  and  ill-ventilated,  and  insufficiently 
heated  in  winter ;  and  the  food  of  the  prisoners  has  been 
coarse  and  innutritions,  whilst  more  labor  has  been  ex- 
tracted from  them  than  their  strength  has  been  adequate 
to  perform.  The  prisoners,  moreover,  have  been  sub- 
jected to  the  tyranny  of  brutal  keepers,  frequently  loaded 
with  irons,  and  occasionally  severely  whipped.  Under 
these  circumstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  rate  of 

*  Hygienic,  health-producing. 

t  See  the  Annalcs  d'llygienc  Publique,  Jan.  1819. 


196 


USE   OF   ALCOHOL 


mortality  in  the  prison  has  been  always  high,  varying 
from  one  in  23  88  to  one  in  7*85,  whilst  the  average  rate 
of  mortality  amongst  the   inhal^itanta  of  the  town  of 
Nismcs,  of  the  same  ago  and  sex,  amounted  to  one  in 
49'9.     The  rate  of  mortality  in  the  prison  underwent 
considerable  variations  in  different  years ;  and  for  these 
variations  some  definite  cause  could  generally  be  assigned. 
Thus  the  winters  of  1828-9,  and  of  1829-30,   were 
unusually  severe  and  prolonged ;  and  the  rate  of  mor- 
tahty  for  1829  was  one  in  940,  whilst  for  1830  it  was 
one  in  8  50 ;  clearly  proving  the  fatal  influence  of  a  low 
temperature  upon  systems  debihtated  by  insufficient  food, 
impure  air,  and  work  disproportioned  to  their  strength. 
With  the  exception  of  the  year  1833,  in  which  the  mor- 
tality was  again  great,  the  rate  was  much  less  for  several 
subsequent  years,  varying  between  one  in  11*35,  and  one 
in  1562 ;  but  in  1839  it  suddenly  rose  from  one  in  12-32 
to  one  in  7*85.     The  cause  of  this  terrible  augmentation 
(from  102  deaths  to  162)  seems  to  have  lain  in  a  mini- 
sterial ordinance  issued  on  the  10th  of  May,   1839, 
limiting  the  alimentary  articles  allowed  to  be  sold  at  the 
canteen  to  potatoes,  cheese,  and  butter.     Previously  to 
th  at  time,  the  convicts  had  had  it  in  their  power  to  lay 
ou  t  a  portion  of  their  earnings,  wliich  was  at  their  own 
d  isposal,  in  the  purchase  of  wine  and  tobacco,  in  addition 
to  the  articles  just  named ;  but  these  were  now  prohibited. 
184.    "  In  order  fully  to  appreciate,"   says  Dr.  J. 
Coxe  (by  whom  this  case  is  cited  in  the  ninth  edition  of 
Dr.  A.  Combe's  Physiology  of  Digestion),  "the  amount 
of  misery  thus  entailed  upon  the  prisoners,  the  reader 
mus  t  be  aware,  that,  in  the  south  of  France,  wine  is  con- 
idered  an  absolute  necessary  of  life.     It  is  drunk 'by  the 
s 


IX    EXCEPTION  AT,   CASES. 


197 


poorest  of  the  people,  and  ap|)cais  essential  to  enahlo 
them  to  digest  their  coarse,  unstitnulating  fixxl.  Within 
the  town  of  Nismes,  it  costs  about  a  penny  the  litre 
(1|  pint) ;  and  without  the  wall,  where  it  is  free  from 
duty,  the  laborer  may  drink  it  at  a  penny  the  hour.  Po- 
tatoes, butter,  and  cheese  could  not  replace  its  stimulus ; 
and  besides,  the  south  of  France  containing  no  pastures, 
the  butter  was  bad  and  dear,  and  the  cheese  also  dear. 
Hence,  the  pittance  at  the  disposal  of  the  prisoners  wa.s 
more  than  ever  insufficient  to  supply  the  deficiency  of 
nutriment." 

185.  The  rate  of  mortality  was  somewhat  diminished 
in  the  following  year,  the  diet  being  increased,  and  the 
prisoners  receiving  small  supplies  of  wine  and  to1)acco  at 
exorbitant  rates,  principally  through  the  connivance  of 
the  officials  :  still,  however,  it  remained  very  high ;  the 
number  of  deaths  in  1840  being  135  out  of  1,216  pri- 
soners, or  one  in  9*07.  Attention  being  now  attracted  to 
the  condition  of  the  prisoners,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  ameliorate  it ;  the  old  keepers  being  removed,  and  their 
places  being  supplied  by  the  "  Freres  des  ecoles  chre- 
tiennes,"*  who  substituted  moral  persuasion  for  physical 
force  ;  and  the  diet  being  improved  both  in  quantity  and 
quality.  In  consequence  of  these  measures,  the  mortality 
again  began  to  diminish,  and  reached  its  lowest  point  in 
1844,  when  the  number  of  deaths  was  only  fifty-six  out  of 
1,290  prisoners,  or  one  in  23-88.  The  "  Freres,"  how- 
ever, being  disgusted  at  the  continual  obstructions  which 
their  measures  received,  gave  up  their  charge ;  the  old 
system  of  hard  work  and  cruel  punishments  was  again 


*  Freres,  &c.  an  order  of  friars. 


17* 


198 


USE   OF   ALCOHOL 


introduced ;  aiid  the  pittance  at  the  disposal  of  the  pri- 
soners was  diminished  to  a  mere  fraction.  The  effect  of 
this  change  speedily  showed  itself  in  the  increased  mor- 
tality, the  avei-age  of  deaths  progi-essively  increasing,  in 
the  years  1845,  1846,  and  1847,  to  one  in  19-63,  one 
in  16 -52,  and  one  in  1357.  One  of  the  first  acts,  how- 
ever, of  the  revolutionary  government  of  February,  1848, 
was  to  put  a  stop  to  the  system  of  convict-labor,  as 
it  was  then  carried  on,  and  the  result  of  this  change  was 
speedily  apparent  in  the  diminished  mortality ;  for,  whilst 
the  number  of  deaths  during  the  seven  months  ending 
October  31,  1847,  had  been  forty-four,  only  sixteen 
deaths  took  place  during  the  corresponding  months 
of  1848. 

186.  Now,  the  principal  lesson  taught  by  this  fearful 
history  is  the  dependence  of  the  vital  powers  upon  food, 
and  the  fatal  effects  of  the  exaction  of  severe  labor  from 
men  insufficiently  supplied  with  aliment,  especially  when 
they  are  subjected  to  the  additionally  injurious  influences 
of  a  low  temperature,  foul  air,  and  ill  treatment.  But 
it  seems  obvious,  from  the  large  increase  in  the  r.ate  of 
mortality  which  ensued  upon  the  prohibition  of  icine^  no 
extraordinary  depression  of  temperature  having  existed 
to  account  for  it,  that  its  deprivation  exerted  a  positively 
injurious  effect.  If  an  adequate  measure  of  nutritious 
food  had  been  supplied  in  its  stead,  the  change  would 
doubtless  have  been  for  the  better ;  but  the  support  given 
by  the  wine,  which  was  probably  too  weak  and  poor  to 
have  any  decided  stimulating  effect  in  moderate  quantities, 
had  become  so  necessary  to  the  debilitated  systems  of 
these  men,  that  its  withdrawal  was  fatal  to  many  among 
them. 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


199 


187.  From  these  two  cases,  then,  and  from  others 
which  miglit  be  cited  to  the  same  effect,  we  seem  justified 
in  concluding  that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  small 
quantity  may  assist  in  sustaining  the  powers  of  the  sys- 
tem, when  these  have  undergone  an  extreme  depression 
from  the  combined  influence  of  exposure  or  exertion,  and 
of  want  of  food ;  so  that  under  such  circumstances  the 
alcohol  docs  decidedly  more  good  than  harm,  and  should 
therefore  bo  employed  when  accessible.  And  this  we 
may  freely  admit,  without  having  in  the  least  degree  to 
qualify  the  doctrine  previously  advanced,  that  continual 
exposure  and  protracted  exertion  may  be  better  sustained 
Avithout  the  use  of  alcohohc  liquors  than  with  it,  when  an 
adequate  supply  of  wholesome  food  is  to  be  had,  and  the 
stomach  is  capable  of  digesting  it. 

III.    DEFICIENCY   OF   CONSTITUTIONAL  VIGOR. 


188.  Wo  have  now  to  inquire  into  the  third  class  of 
cases,  in  which  a  temporarily  beneficial  result  appears 
to  be  derived  from  the  occasional,  or  even  (for  a  time  at 
least)  the  habitual,  use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  —  those, 
namely,  in  which  there  is  a  want  of  sufficient  vigor  on 
the  part  of  the  system  itself  to  digest  and  assimilate  the 
aliment  which  it  really  needs.  Such  cases  present  them- 
selves in  all  ranks  of  life.  In  the  higher,  they  too  fre- 
quently result  from  heated  rooms  and  late  hours,  from 
the  want  of  regular  exercise  of  mind  and  body,  and 
from  habits  of  self-indulgence  and  '•  coddling,"  which 
foster,  especially  in  females,  what  may  have  been  an 
hereditary  weakness  of  digestive  power.  In  the  middle 
classes,  it  is  usually  traceable  to  the  "  wear  and  tear  "  of 


200 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


professional  or  commercial  avocations ;  to  undue  cerebral 
labor,  carried  on,  as  this  frequently  is,  in  ill-ventilated 
apartments ;  and  to  the  anxieties  incident  to  the  consci- 
entious discharge  of  the  duties  of  a  profession,  or  to  the 
fluctuations  of  business.  Among  the  lower  classes,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  traceable  rather  to  the  condition  of 
their  dweUings,  workshops,  and  persons ;  to  the  want 
of  ventilation  of  the  buildings  in  which  they  dwell  or 
labor,  to  the  miasmatic  atmosphere  of  their  ill-drained 
streets,  and  to  the  foulness  of  their  skins  and  garments. 
189.  Now,  in  the  first  of  these  groups,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  want  of  appetite  is  a  natural  result  of  the  reduc- 
tion of  demand  for  aliment  to  its  lowest  point ;  for  where 
neither  the  muscular  nor  the  nervous  systems  are  ade- 
quately exercised,  and  where  the  body  is  habitually  kept 
in  a  temperature  not  far  below  its  own,  there  can  be  very 
little  "  waste  "  to  be  repaired,  and  a  very  small  amount 
of  combustive  action  can  be  needed  to  keep  up  the  heat  of 
the  body  to  its  proper  standard.  But  the  digestive 
powers  are  very  liable,  when  their  natural  use  is  too 
little  called  for,  to  sink  beloiv  the  level  at  which  the 
demands  of  the  system  should  keep  them ;  and  thus  an 
almost  total  want  of  appetite,  and  extreme  debility  of  the 
stomach,  are  the  result,  which  of  course  tends  to  aug- 
ment the  habits  of  self-indulgence,  and  to  foster  the 
whole  system  of  "  coddling."  In  such  cases,  an  appa- 
rent benefit  is  derived  from  the  habitual  employment  of 
a  glass  or  two  of  wine,  or  a  tumbler  of  bitter  ale :  but 
tliis  merely  facilitates  the  persistence  in  a  wrong  course ; 
and  every  judicious  practitioner  would  now  assent  to  the 
truthfulness  of  the  advice,  given  by  Abernethy  in  a  case 
of  this  kind,  to  "  live  on  a  shilling  a  day,  and  earn  it." 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


201 


•al 
ed 


It  is  utterly  impossible  that  alcoholic  licjuors  can  coun- 
teract the  influence  of  heated  rooms  and  late  hours ;  that 
they  can  stand  in  the  place  of  healthful  exercise  of  mind 
and  body ;  or  that  they  can  neutrahze  the  evil  results 
which  are  sure  to  proceed  from  the  habitual  direction  of 
the  attention  to  self  All  that  they  can  beneficially  do 
is  to  create  for  a  time  that  appetite  which  ought  to  be 
naturally  felt,  and  to  urge  the  unwilling  stomach  to  di- 
gest that  food  which  the  body  really  requires.  But  this 
they  can  only  eflfect  by  their  stimulating  properties; 
and,  as  the  usual  dose  almost  invariably  ceases  after  a 
time  to  exert  its  original  influence,  it  requires  a  gradual 
increase,  until  the  evil  effects  of  its  habitual  use  in  such 
a  state  of  the  system  are  unmistakably  manifested. 

190.  The  true  cure  for  conditions  of  this  kind  lies  in 
such  an  entire  change  of  habits  as  shall  place  the  system 
in  the  condition  most  favorable  to  the  recovery  of  its 
vigor,  or  to  the  acquirement  of  that  which  it  has  never 
enjoyed ;  —  the  substitution  of  fresh  air  and  bracing 
breezes  for  heated  and  ill- ventilated  rooms ;  of  early  and 
regular  hours  for  the  system  of  turning  night  into  day, 
and  day  into  night ;  of  plain  but  wholesome  fare  for 
seasoned  dishes  and  refined  cookery ;  of  the  use  of  even 
a  weakly  pair  of  limbs  for  that  of  a  carriage  and  horses ; 
and  of  labor  in  behalf  of  others  for  the  weariness  of  ennui, 
or  continual  thought  of  one's  self, 

191.  Nevertheless,  it  may  happen,  that,  after  all  these 
means  have  had  a  fair  trial,  and  considerable  improve- 
ment may  have  been  produced,  the  stomach  may  not  bo 
equal  to  its  work;  and  this  is  liable  to  be  the  case  more 
particularly  with  those  to  whom  weak  digestive  powers 
have  been  transmitted  from  their  parents  (generally  in 


..,Ji 


202 


USB   OF  ALCOHOL 


consequence  of  their  own  unhealthful  habits),  or  in  whom 
they  have  been  fixed  (so  to  speak)  by  an  erroneous  sys- 
tem of  bodily  and  mental  training,  and  especially  by  the 
habitual  use  of  stimulants  during  childhood  and  youth. 
In  such  cases,  the  writer  believes  that  the  habitual  use 
of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  stimulant,  especially 
when  combined  with  a  bitter  tonic,  may  be  of  more 
service  than  any  other  form  of  medicine ;  and,  if  care  be 
taken  not  to  employ  it  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce 
an  artificial  appetite,  or  to  force  the  stomach  to  digest 
more  than  the  system  really  needs,  it  does  not  appear 
likely  to  have  the  same  permanently  injurious  effects  as 
it  exerts  in  most  other  cases.  It  will  generally  be  found 
to  be  an  indication  of  its  beneficial  use,  that  the  dose 
does  not  require  increase ;  the  small  quantity  originally 
taken  continuing  to  exert  its  good  effects ;  and  this 
benefit  will  be  more  hkely  to  be  persistent,  if  the  use 
of  the  alcoholic  stimulant  be  intermitted  whenever  the 
digestive  powers  seem  adequate  to  the  support  of  the  sys- 
tem without  it. 

192.  The  want  of  appetite  and  feebleness  of  digestive 
power,  so  common  among  individuals  in  the  middle 
classes,  who  go  through  an  undue  amount  of  cerebral 
labor,  frequently  under  circumstances  which  are  of  them- 
selves prejudicial  to  health,  has  been  already  adverted  to 
under  another  head  (§§  163,  164)  ;  and  it  has  been 
shown,  that  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  cannot  in  gen- 
eral be  regarded  as  likely  to  be  permanently  beneficial 
in  such  a  condition,  although  temporary  benefit  may 
doubtless  be  derived  from  it.  It  is  impossible  that  alco- 
hol can  supply  the  place  of  mental  repose  to  the  man 
whose  intellect  is  overtasked,  and  whose  anxieties '  are 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


203 


unduly  excited  for  himself  or  for  others ;  or  that  it  can 
be  an  efficient  substitute  for  muscular  exercise  to  the 
man  of  sedentary  habits,  or  for  fresh  air  to  him  who  is 
habitually  exercising  his  brain  in  a  close,  ill-ventilated 
apartment.  All  that  it  can  do  is,  as  in  the  former 
case,  to  restore  the  appetite  which  ought  to  be  felt,  and 
to  force  the  digestive  powers  to  the  discharge  of  the  duty 
which  they  are  indisposed  to  perform  of  their  own  accord. 
And  here,  too,  we  find  that,  when  stimulants  are  habit- 
ually employed  for  such  a  purpose,  they  gradually  lose 
their  power ;  and  the  wearied  stomach,  like  the  jaded 
roadster,  at  last  breaks  down,  under  the  combined  influ- 
ence of  the  withdrawal  of  nervous  agency  consequent 
upon  cerebral  exhaustion,  and  of  the  depression  of  its 
own  energies  consequent  upon  the  habitual  over-excite- 
ment to  which  it  has  itself  been  subjected. 

193.  Here,  then,  it  is  obvious  that  the  use  of  alcohol- 
ic stimulants  can  only  serve  as  a  palliative,  and  that 
the  true  remedy  can  only  be  found  in  such  a  change 
of  habits  as  shall  bring  back  the  system  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  natural  state.  The  intellectual  labor 
must  be  moderated ;  the  mind  must  be  prevented  from 
dwelling  on  its  own  sources  of  anxiety  by  the  healthful 
influences  of  social  and  domestic  intercourse,  of  variety 
of  occupation,  and  of  objects  that  shall  interest  without 
exciting  it;  and  the  body  must  be  placed,  by  regular 
exercise,  fresh  air,  and  adequate  repose,  in  the  most 
favorable  condition  for  the  endurance  of  mental  labor. 
Such  measures,  steadily  pursued,  with  an  occasional 
complete  intermission  from  the  ordinary  occupations,  and 
an  entire  change  of  scene  with  the  accompaniment  of 
fresh  objects  of  interest  (for  ennui  is  to  be  especially 


i  i 


1  I 


204 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


Ill 


avoided),  more  especially  when  a  bracing  air  and  aug- 
mented muscular  exercise  tend  still  further  to  the  bodily 
invigoration,  will  usually  be  found  sufficient,  when  em- 
ployed in  time,  for  sustaining  the  appetite  and  digestive 
powers  under  that  amount  of  mental  lalwr  to  which  the 
system  is  really  equal ;  and  recourse  should  be  had  to  all 
such  natural  means  of  procuring  and  sustaining  the  vigor 
of  health,  before  the  artificial  and  delusive  aid  of  alcoholic 
stimulants  is  invoked.  It  is,  indeed,  among  the  most 
injurious  results  of  their  habitual  use,  that  it  is  found 
possible,  through  their  means,  to  prolong  the  health- 
destroying  system,  and  thereby,  like  the  trader  who 
lx>lsters  up  his  failing  credit  with  accommodation-bills, 
to  carry  onwards,  from  page  to  page  of  the  book  of  life, 
a  heavy  balance  which  must  be  accounted  for  at  some 
subsequent  period. 

194.  Still,  the  writer  is  by  no  moans  disposed  to  deny, 
that,  after  all  other  practicable  means  have  been  taken 
for  the  invigoration  of  the  system,  the  habitual  use  of  a 
small  or  moderate  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquors  may  be 
found  beneficial  in  some  individuals  of  the  class  referred 
to ;  enabling  them  to  digest  that  food  which  the  system 
really  needs,  and  thus  contributing  to  sustjiin  their  powers 
under  an  amount  of  exertion  to  which  they  would  not 
otherwise  be  equal.  And  this  will  be  especially  the  case 
(as  with  the  class  first  treated  of),  where,  from  heredi- 
tary predisposition  or  the  habits  of  early  life,  there  is  a 
fixed  constitutional  debility  of  the  digestive  powers.  In 
such  instances,  the  stimulating  effects  of  the  alcohol  do 
not  manifest  themselves ;  it  is  not  found  requisite  to  in- 
crease the  dose ;  and  the  practice  is  continued  with  appa- 
rent benefit  through  the  whole  of  life.     A  characteristic 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


205 


example  of  the  results  of  experience  in  this  respect  is 
afforded  by  the  case  of  the  late  Dr.  Joseph  Clarke, 
of  Dublin,  who  lived  to  the  age  of  seventy-six  years, 
and  who  discharged  the  duties  of  a  laborious  profes- 
sion, with  scarcely  any  intermission,  to  the  end  of  his 
life.* 

195.  The  craving  which  is  felt  for  alcoholic  liquor 
among  the  classes  whose  labor  is  rather  physical  than 
mental,  and  the  benefit  which  in  many  cases  appears  to 
be  derived  from  it,  proceed  from  a  different  cause.  No- 
thing can  be  conceived  in  itself  more  likely  to  whet  the 
appetite,  and  invigorate  the  digestive  powers,  than  regu- 
lar but  not  excessive  muscular  toil,  with  that  moderate 
occupation  of  mind  which  the  execution  of  the  labor 
involves;  but,  in  order  that  this  may  exert  its  proper 
effect,  it  must  be  carried  on  under  circumstances  other- 
wise favorable  to  health,  and  more  especially  in  a  pure 
atmosphere  of  moderate  temperature.  If,  in  place  of 
this,  the  air  be  already  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  an 
obstruction  is  created  to  the  unusually  rapid  exhalation 
of  that  gas  which  muscular  exertion  involves,  and  the 
labor  cannot  be  borne  without  the  assistance  of  stimu- 
lants. And,  if  the  atmosphere  of  the  dwelling  be  charged 
with  the  noxious  emanations  resulting  from  animal  or 
vegetable  putrefaction,  the  appetite  and  the  digestive 
powers  fail,  the  aliment  which  the  system  really  needs 
for  the  regeneration  of  its  "  wasted  "  material  is  no 
longer  prepared  and  supplied  to  the  circulating  current, 
and  the  strength  consequently  flags.     Under  such  cir- 


! 

'        41 


♦  See  the  Sketch  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Life  and  Writings,  by  his 
nephew,  Dr.  Collins,  p.  81. 
18 


206 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


oumstances,  recourse  is  had,  with  apparent  benefit,  to  the 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors ;  for  they  spur  on  the  stomach 
to  its  work,  and  cause  it,  for  a  time  at  least,  to  furnish 
what  is  needed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  various  func- 
tions of  tlie  body;  the  whole  train  of  which  depends, 
more  or  less  directly,  upon  the  due  performance  of  the 
digestive  operation. 

196.  Now,  it  is  a  remarkable  characteristic  of  this 
condition,  that  the  stimulus  which  was  at  first  found 
sufficient  very  speedily  ceases  to  produce  its  usual  efiect ; 
and  that  the  feeling  of  necessity  for  it  increases,  the 
more  it  is  used.  Of  this  we  have  an  example  —  which, 
though  an  extreme  case,  teaches  the  lesson  with  the  force 
that  extreme  cases  alone  can  do  —  in  the  conditicm  of 
the  journeymen  tailors  employed  in  the  large  London 
workshops,  as  disclosed  by  the  inquiries  whose  results 
are  published  in  the  first  "  Sanitary  Beport"  (1842). 
The  heat  and  closeness  of  the  workshops  were  stated  by 
the  witnesses  to  be  such,  that,  on  the  coldest  nights  of 
winter,  large  thick  tallow  candles  melted  and  fell  over 
with  the  heat,  and  fresh  hands  from  the  country  fainted 
away.  In  order  to  get  the  strength  up  for  the  day's 
work,  and  to  Create  an  appetite  for  breakfast,  it  was 
customary  to  take  a  glass  of  gin  at  seven  o'clock  in  the 
morning ;  and  this  was  repeated  three  or  four  times  in 
the  subsequent  ten  hours.  Now,  the  utter  inability 
of  the  alcoholic  stimulus  to  afibrd  more  than  a  tempo- 
rary power  of  endurance  under  such  a  state  of  things, 
and  the  cumulative  eflfect  of  the  noxious  atmosphere  on 
the  one  hand,  and  of  the  habitual  use  of  spirits  on  the 
other,  are  fearfully  shown  in  the  excessive  mortality 
among  this  class  of  men,  especially  from  consiunption ; 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


207 


their  average  age  not  being  above  thirty-two,  and  a  man 
of  fifty  being  considered  a&  superannuated.  "* 

197.  Nothing  can  be  more  absurd,  then,  than  to 
maintain  that  any  real  benefit  is  derived  from  alcoholic 
liquors  in  such  cases,  or  that  it  can  in  the  least  degree 
supply  the  place  of  pure  air,  or  enable  the  body  to  resist 
the  influence  of  excessive  heat.  Nor  can  it  be  more 
potent  in  preventing  the  morbific  influence  of  putrescent 
miasmata;  nor,  again,  can  it  make  up  for  the  want  of 
personal  cleanliness.  These  agencies  can  only  be  reme- 
died by  their  proper  antagonistic  measures,  —  hot  and 
foul  air  by  proper  ventilation ;  noxious  emanations  from 
the  soil  by  efficient  sewerage ;  filthiness  of  the  skin  and 
garments  by  the  use  of  baths  and  wash-houses ;  and,  if 
they  be  allowed  to  continue,  they  must  exert  their  influ- 
ence on  the  bodily  system,  all  the  alcohol  in  the  world 
notwithstanding.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are 
removed,  —  the  artisan's  labor  being  prosecuted  in  pure 
air,  and  his  home  and  garments  being  kept  clean  and 
fresh,  so  that  his  skin  and  lungs  are  allowed  their  due 
exercise,  —  it  will  be  seldom,  if  ever,  that  any  thing  else 
will  be  required  to  sharpen  his  appetite,  and  invigorate 
his  digestive  powers,  for  the  consumption  of  as  much 
food  as  his  system  may  require. 

198.  On  the  whole,  then,  we  may  conclude,  that,  in 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  falling  under  one  or 
other  of  the  above  categories,  the  influence  of  the  habitual 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  while  it  may  seem  temporarily 

♦  The  •writer  has  been  informed,  that  these  workshops  have  been 
greatly  improved  of  late  years,  especially  in  regard  to  ventilation ; 
and  that  the  craving  for  spirits,  on  the  part  of  those  employed  in 
them,  has  gradually  ceased  to  manifest  itself. 


208 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


I 


i 


4- 


G^- 


beneficial,  is  in  the  end  rather  pernicious  than  otherwise ; 
and  this  not  so  much,  in  the  cases  now  under  considera- 
tion, by  their  own  specific  effects  on  the  system,  as  by 
causing  the  individual  io  feel  less  need  of  the  very  change 
which  is  needed  for  the  restoration  of  the  body  to  its 
wonted  vigor.  The  insensibility  to  the  efiects  of  various 
morbific  causes,  which  the  habitual  use  of  these  stimu- 
lants induces,  and  the  toleration  of  them  which  it  thus 
permits,  may  be  regarded,  indeed,  as  one  of  its  most 
injurious  results.  Those  who  are  prevented  from  feel- 
ing the  immediate  consequences  of  their  improper  course 
flatter  themselves  that  they  are  uninfluenced  by  them, 
and  give  to  their  wine,  their  spirits,  or  their  beer,  the 
credit  of  the  escape.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the  case. 
The  enemy  is  only  baffled,  not  dispersed ;  and,  although 
he  lies  concealed  for  a  time,  he  only  waits  until  his 
onslaught  may  be  more  efiectually  made.  Any  systema- 
tic departure  from  the  laws  of  health  —  all  experience 
teaches  —  must  exert  its  influence  on  the  system,  sooner 
or  later ;  the  sooner  it  does  so,  the  more  readily  may  the 
mischief  usually  be  corrected ;  whilst  the  postponement 
of  its  efiects  tends  to  render  the  process  of  cure  as  pro- 
tracted as  the  operation  of  the  causes  has  been.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  benefits  of  the  abstinent  system,  then, 
that,  by  making  the  evils  of  such  a  departure  less  endu- 
rable, it  sooner  prompts  the  sufierer  to  seek  a  remedy. 

198.  Pregnancy.  —  Among  the  modifications  of  the 
bodily  condition,  short  of  actual  disease,  in  which 
the  occasional  and  even  the  habitual  use  of  fr.i  uiwffifd 
')jap9m  seems  desirable  in  some  instances,  are  the  states 
of  pregnancy  and  lactation.  The  state  of  pregnancy 
frequently  occasions  a  peculiar  irritability  of  the  stomach 


\ 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


209 


(frjr|ni"iillj'  'ft  w  jninlj  iii  i  ni;ia  rhnimrtrr),  which  indis- 
poses it  to  retain  the  nutriment  really  required  by  the 
system,  or  which  prevents  14  from' properly  digesting  and 
preparing  It  w^en  retkinM:  This  irritabihty  is  occasion- 
ally so  aggravated  as  to  become  the  bubject  of  medical 
treatment;  and  the  most  powerful  sedative "^  medicines 
are  sometimes  required  to  subdue  it  sufficiently  for  the 
retention  of  even  small  quantities  of  food.^  Sometimes 
even  these  are  ineffectual ;  and  more  rehef  is  obtainable 
from  small  quantities  of  wine,  frequently  repeated, 
than  from  any  thing  elseJJ  T^  ^Hg°j  ^^  Philidnlphia, 
mentions  a  case  in  which  nothing  could  be  borne  but 
■vibaiBpagiie.  J.n  milder  cases  of  the  same  kind,  it  often 
happens  that  a  small  quantity  of  fermented  liquor,  taken 
with  the  principal  meai,  seems  to  establish  a  tolerance  of 
it  in  the  stomach,  and  to  promote  its  digestion,  in  a  way 
which  no  ordinary  sedative  or  tonic  medicine  can  effect ; 
and  it  certainly  seems  a  less  evil  to  employ  this,  even 
habitually,  during  the  period  of  pregnancy,  than  to  allow 
the  system  both  of  mother  and  foetus  to  be  suffering  for 
want  of  the  aliment  which  this  condition  so  peculiarly 
requires.  ( And,  ae^the  source  of  irritation  is  temporary, 
there"is  less  danger  than  in  other  circumstances,  lest  the 
demand  should  be  rendered  permanent  by  the  habituation, 
of  the  stomach  to  the  stimulus. 

199.  But  the  evils  attending  its  habitual  use,  even 
under  such  circumstances,  can  only  be  reduce  ^.  to  their 
minimum  by  very  careful  attention  to  all  the  other  con- 
ditions favorable  to  health  during  the  pregnant  state,  — 
especially  fresh  air,  moderate  exercise,  early  hours,  ade- 


li 


*  Sedative,  composing,  sleep-producing. 


18* 


210 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


'i* 


quate  repose,  and  the  avoidance  of  all  sources  of  excite- 
ment ;  and  also  by  the  strict  hmitation  of  the  quantity 
of  the  alcoholic  liquor  to  that  which  is  suflScient  to 
produce  the  desired  result.  The  writer  has  known  cases 
in  which,  under  such  watchful  regulation,  great  benefit 
appeared  to  be  derived  from  the  very  moderate  use  of 
alcoholic  liquors  (especially  of  those  in  which  the  bitter 
and  sedative  properties  of  the  hop  are  combined),  without 
any  corresponding  disadvantage ;  the  stomach  being  there- 
by enabled,  so  long  as  the  pregnant  state  lasted,  to  receive 
and  digest  the  food  which  the  system  really  needed ;  and 
the  requirement  not  being  felt  after  its  termination.  But 
it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  the  habit  of  indulgence 
in  fermented  liquors,  once  established,  is  often  felt  by 
females,  as  well  as  by  men,  to  be  very  diflScult  of  rehn- 
quishment ;  and  where  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
individual  does  not  possess  self-command  sufiBcient  to 
break  through  the  habit  at  the  proper  time,  it  might 
be  advisable  to  endeavor  to  substitute  a  medicine  for  a 
beverage^  giving  to  the  alcoholic  compound  such  a  form 
as  may  render  it  not  peculiarly  palatable  or  inviting. 

200.  Lactatio7i.  —  The  benefit  derivable  from  the  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors  to  support  the  system  during  lacta- 
tion *  is  more  doubtful.  Certainly  it  may  be  aflSrmed, 
that,  in  every  case  in  which  the  appetite  is  good  and  the 
general  system  healthy,  the  habitual  use  of  these  stimu- 
lants is  no  more  called  for  than  at  any  other  time ;  and 
that  they  are  likely  to  produce  the  same  injurious  efiects  as 
when  unnecessarily  given  under  ordinary  circumstances. 
The  regular  administration  of  alcohol,  with  the  professed 

*  Lactation^  the  condition  of  nursing,  or  giving  milk. 


I 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


211 


I 


object  of  supporting  tho  system  under  the  demand  occa- 
sioned by  Ihc  flow  of  milk,  is  "a  mockery,  a  delusion, 
and  a  snare."  For  alcohol  affords  no  single  clement  of 
the  secretion,  and  is  much  more  likely  to  impair  than 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  milk.  G'he  only  mode  in 
which  it  can  contribute,  even  indirectly,  to  increase  the 
amount  of  solid  aliment  which  tho  secretion  may  contain, 
is  by  affording  a  supply  of  combustivo  material,  the 
consumption  of  which  may  leave  more  oleaginous  and 
saccharine  matter  to  pass  into  the  milk.  But.  where 
the  appetite  already  prompts  to  the  ingeation,  and  the 
stomach  is  equal  to  the  dige&iion,  of  an  adequate  amount 
of  solid  food,  no  such  benefit  can  be  looked  for ;  and,  al- 
though it  cannot  be  certainly  affirmed  that  the  character 
of  the  milk  is  always  impaired  by  the  habitual  use  of 
moderate  (quantities  of  alcoholic  liquors,  yet  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  such  is  usually  the  case.  For  it  is 
unquestionable  that  their  excessive  employment  is  highly 
prejudicial  to  the  quality  of  the  milk,  and  thereby  to  the 
health  of  i:he  child ;  having  a  special  tendency  to  occasion 
derangements  of  the  digestive  organs,  Jvnd  convulsive 
complaints.*  This,  indeed,  might  be  fully  expected ;  since 
all  that  we  know  of  the  mode  in  which  substances  taken 
into  the  blood  affect  the  mamma '."y  secretion  would  lead 
us  to  expect,  that  alcohol,  if  introduced  into  the  circula- 
tion more  rjipidly  than  it  can  be  consumed,  would  pass 
into  the  railk,  and  would  consequently  produce  the  same 
effects  upon  the  child  as  if  directly  given  to  it,  besides 
deranging  by  its  presence  the  act  of  secretion  itself,  in 

♦  Dr.  North  says  (Practical  Observations  on  the  Convulsions  of 
Infants),  that  he  has  seen  these  almost  instantly  removed  by  the 
transference  of  the  child  to  a  temperate  woman.  —  Author. 


212 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


i?  ii' 


virtue  of  its  tendency  to  pr'oduce  coagulation  of  albu- 
minous matters.  And  the  fact,  that  multitudes  of  women 
of  good  constitutions,  whose  general  habits  are  conducive 
to  health,  go  through  the  period  of  lactation  without  any 
feeling  of  debility,  simply  finding  their  appetite  increased 
during  its  continuance,  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  this  con- 
dition is  not  one  which  in  itself  occasions  a  demand  for 
alcoholic  liquors. 

201.  But  there  are  cases  in  which,  notwithstanding 
all  that  can  be  done  to  promote  the  general  health,  the 
stomach  does  not  seem  capable  of  retaining  and  digesting 
the  requisite  amount  of  nutriment,  except  under  the 
artificial  assistance  afibrded  by  alcoholic  liquors ;  and  in 
which  it  appears  more  desirable,  for  the  welfare  alike 
of  mother  and  child,  that  such  assistance  should  be 
affijrded,  than  that  lactation  should  be  carried  on  without 
it.  In  one  case  of  this  kind  that  fell  particularly  under 
the  writer's  notice,  in  which  the  mother  was  most  anxious 
to  avoid  the  assistance  of  fermented  liquors,  and  began  to 
nurse  without  their  support,  the  milk  was  obviously  too 
poor  in  quality,  and  not  sufficient  in  quantity,  for  the 
nutrition  of  the  infant ;  and  the  use  of  a  single  glass  of 
wine,  or  a  tumbler  of  porter,  per  day,  was  followed  by 
a  speedy  and  marked  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
both  mother  and  child;  and  this  small  allowance  did 
not  require  to  be  increased  during  the  continuance  of 
the  lactation,  and  was  relinfjuished  without  difficulty 
soon  after  the  weaning  of  the  infant.  In  such  cases,  the 
alcoholic  liquor  seems  to  have  no  other  operation  than 
that  of  enabling  the  stomach  to  digest  the  amount  of 
solid  aliment  required  by  the  system ;  whilst  the  small- 
ness  of  the  quantity  of  alcohol  introduced  at  any  one 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


213 


i] 


time  prevents  it  from  either  itself  passing  into  the  milk, 
or  exerting  any  injurious  influence  on  the  secreting  pra- 
cess.     But  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  practice  is 
in  the  end  desirable ;  or  whether  it  is  not,  like  the  same 
practice  under  other  circumstances  already  adverted  to, 
really  detrimental,  by  causing  lactation  to  be  persevered 
in,  without  apparent  injury  at  the  time,  by  females 
whose  bodily  vigor  is  not  adequate  to  sustain  it.     Such 
certainly  appeared  to  be  the  case  in  the  instance  just 
referred  to ;  for  the  system  remained  in  a  very  depressed 
state  for  some  tim3  after  the  conclusion  of  the  first  lacta- 
tion;  and  on  subsequent  occasions  it  has  been  found 
absolutely  necessary  to  discontinue  nursing  at  a  very 
early  period  of  the  infant's  hfe,  owing  to  the  inadequacy 
of  the  milk  for  its  nutrition,  and  the  obvious  inabihty  of 
the  mother  to  bear  the  drain.   Hence  it  may  be  affirmed, 
with  tolerable  certainty,  that  the  first  lactation,  although 
not  prolonged  beyond  the  usual  period,  and  although 
apparently  well  sustained  by  the  mother,  was  really 
injurious  to  her ;  and  the  inabihty  to  furnish  what  was 
required,  without  the  stimulus  of  alcoholic  liquors,  was 
nature's  warning,  wliich  ought  not  to  have  been  disre- 
garded. 

202.  Considering,  then,  that  lactation  (unlike  preg- 
nancy) may  bo  put  an  end  to  at  any  period,  should  it 
prove  injurious  to  the  mother,  the  writer  is  disposed  to 
give  his  full  assent  to  the  dictum  of  Dr.  Macnish ;  that, 
"  if  a  woman  cannot  afford  the  necessary  supply  without 
these  indulgences,  she  should  give  over  the  infant  to  some 
one  who  can,  and  drop  nursing  altogether."  —  "  The  only 
cases,"  continues  Dr.  M.  "in  which  a  moderate  portion 
of  malt  liquor  is  justifiable,  are  when  the  milk  is  deficient, 


214 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


and  the  nurse  averse  or  unable  to  put  another  in  her 
place.  Here,  of  two  evils,  we  choose  the  least,  and 
rather  give  the  infant  milk  of  an  inferior  quahty  than 
endanger  its  health  by  weaning  it  prematurely,  or  stint- 
ing it  of  its  accustomed  nourishment."  *  Now,  upon 
this,  the  writer  would  remark,  that  a  judicious  system  of 
feeding,  gradually  introduced  from  a  very  early  period 
in  the  life  of  a  child,  will  generally  be  preferable  to  an 
imperfect  supply  of  poor  milk  from  the  mother ;  f  and 
that,  if  the  mother  be  so  foolish  as  to  persevere  in  nurs- 
ing her  infant,  when  nature  has  warned  her  of  her 
incapacity  for  doing  so,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  medical 
man  to  set  before  her,  as  strongly  as  possible,  the  risk, 
—  the  almost  absolute  certainty  —  of  future  prejudice  to 
herself.  The  evils  which  proceed  from  lactation,  pro- 
tracted  beyond  the  ability  of  the  system  to  sustain  it, 
may  be  to  a  certain  degree  kept  in  check  by  the  use  of 
alcoholic  stimulants ;  but  the  writer  is  convinced,  from 
observation  of  the  above  and  similar  cases,  that  its  mani- 
festation is  only  postponed.  Under  no  circumstances, 
therefore,  can  he  consider  that  the  habitual  or  even  occa- 
sional use  of  alcoholic  liquors  during  lactation  is  necessary 
or  beneficial. 

203.  Childhood.  —  It  has  been  maintained  by  some, 
that  there  are  certain  states  of  the  constitution  in  child- 
hood  in  which  benefit  is  derived  from  the  habitual  use  of 


*  Anatomy  of  Drunkenness,  p.  301. 

t  The  author  has  found,  in  his  own  experience,  that  good  cow's 
milk,  somewhat  diluted  with  water,  and  sweetened  with  a  small 
quantity  of  sugar  (so  as  to  be  brought  nearly  to  the  composition 
of  human  milk),  has  answered  extremely  well  even  for  very  young 
infants. 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


215 


small  quantities  of  fermented  liquors ;  and  this  especially 
in  those  who  inherit  the  scrofulous  diathesis,  and  in 
whom  the  nutritive  functions  are  altogether  imperfectly 
performed.  Experience,  it  is  said,  demonstrates  the 
benefit  which  is  derivable  from  the  judicious  employment 
of  stimulants,  in  exciting  the  digestive  and  assimilative 
processes  to  augmented  activity,  and  in  thus  improving 
the  general  tone  of  the  system.  It  is  not  denied,  that 
temporary  benefit  may  be  derived  from  such  a  course ; 
but  this  will  be  obtained  at  the  risk  of  prospective  evil, 
extending  through  the  whole  of  hfe.  For,  if  the  habit 
be  begun  thus  early,  it  will  seldom  be  found  possible  to 
discontinue  it ;  t  =«  stomach  is  rendered  dependent  upon 
artificial  suppo^  ,  a  d  the  improvement  which  this  ap- 
pears to  produce  will  probably  render  the  parent  less 
anxious  to  avail  himself  of  other  means  of  invigorating 
the  system,  and  of  promoting  a  more  active  and  complete 
performance  of  the  nutritive  actions,  which  are  more 
permanent  in  their  character,  because  they  act  more 
naturally  on  the  system.  Every  measure  of  this  kind, 
therefore,  —  such  as  unlimited  exposure  to  fresh  air 
(avoiding  damp  and  cold),  plenty  of  exercise,  warm  but 
not  too  impervious  clothing,  the  copious  use  of  cold 
water  with  the  addition  of  salt,  sea-bathing,  and  other 
adjumenta,*  —  ought  to  have  a  complete  trial,  before 
recourse  be  had  to  the  completely  artificial  support 
yielded  by  alcoholic  liquors. 

204.  There  cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt,  that  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  by  children  in  average 
health  is  in  every  way  injurious.!    In  no  period  of  life 

*  Armenia,  assisting  remedies. 

t  In  illustration  of  the  injurious  effects  of  the  habitual  use  of 


216 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


are  the  nutritive  functions  more  energetically  carried  on, 
if  the  child  be  only  placed  in  circumstances  favorable  to 
health ;  and  at  no  period  of  life  is  there  such  a  disposi- 
tion to  take  just  that  amount  of  exercise  of  the  nervo- 
muscular  apparatus  which  is  beneficial  to  the  system, 
without  exceeding  it.  The  motives  which  stimulate  the 
adult  to  over-exertion  in  his  battle  with  the  world  do  not 
operate  upon  the  child :  unless  forced  by  the  zeal  of 
injudicious  instructors,  he  will  seldom  be  disposed  to 
carry  his  mental  exertions  beyond  the  stage  at  which 
they  may  be  best  intermitted;  and,  whilst  naturally 
prone  to  muscular  exercise,  he  readily  complains  of  fa- 
tigue, and  is  indisposed  to  persevere  after  this  warning 
of  the  failure  of  his  powers.  The  chief  thing  to  be 
watched  for  and  avoided,  therefore,  is  the  excess  in  diet 
to  which  children  are  sometimes  prone,  more  especially 
if  their  palates  be  tempted  by  articles  of  which  they  are 
fond ;  and  if  this  be  duly  restrained,  and  every  natural 
means  for  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  health 


fermented  liquors  upon  healthy  children,  Dr.  Macnish  (Anatomy 
of  Drunkenness,  p.  302)  relates  the  following  experiment  made 
by  Dr.  Hunter  upon  two  of  his  children,  both  of  them  having 
been  previously  unused  to  wine.  To  one,  a  child  of  five  years  of 
age,  he  gave  every  day  a  full  glass  of  sherry ;  to  the  other,  a  child 
of  nearly  the  same  age,  he  gave  an  orange.  In  the  course  of  a 
week,  a  very  marked  difference  was  perceptible  in  the  pulse,  urine, 
and  evacuations  from  the  bowels  of  the  two  children.  The  pulse 
of  the  first  child  was  raised,  the  urine  high-colored,  and  the  eva- 
cuations destitute  of  their  usual  quantity  of  bile.  In  the  other 
child,  no  change  whatever  was  produced.  He  then  reversed  the 
experiment ;  giving  to  the  first  the  orange,  and  to.  the  second 
the  wine,  and  the  results  corresponded :  the  child  who  had  the 
orange  continued  well,  and  the  system  of  the  other  got  straight- 
way into  disorder,  as  in  the  first  experiment.  —  Authob.   ' 


IN  EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


217 


l)e  judiciously  and  perseveringly  employed,  it  is  believed 
by  the  writer  that  more  good  will  in  the  end  bo  done 
than  will  be  accomplished  by  the  assistance  of  alcoholic 
liquors.  And,  in  support  of  this  belief,  he  can  appeal  to 
the  large  numbers  of  families  now  growing  up,  in  this 
country  and  in  America,  in  the  enjoyment  of  vigorous 
health,  among  whom  no  alcoholic  liquor  is  ever  con- 
sumed ;  and  he  can  point  to  numerous  cases  within  his 
personal  knovvledge,  in  which  the  apparent  debility  of 
constitution  having  been  such  as  in  the  opinion  of  some 
to  call  for  the  assistance  of  fermented  liquors,  the  advice 
was  resisted,  and  those  other  means  adopted  wliich  have 
been  already  adverted  to,  with  the  effect  of  rearing  to 
vigor  and  endurance  children  that  originally  appeared 
very  unlikely  to  possess  either. 

205.  Old  Age.  —  It  has  been  maintained,  again,  by 
some  of  those  who  fully  admit  the  undcsirablencss  of  the 
habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  during  the  vigor  of  early 
and  middle  hfe,  that  they  are  requisite  or  useful  for 
the  support  of  old  age.  Now,  upon  this  point,  also, 
the  writer  believes  that  much  misconception  is  prevalent, 
arising  out  of  a  disregard  to  the  dictates  of  nature  on 
the  subject.  During  the  most  active  period  of  life,  the 
"waste"  of  the  body  is  considerable;  and  the  demand 
for  food,  and  the  power  of  thgesting  it.  nrc  both  adequate, 
in  the  healthy  state,  to  supply  that  waste.  But  with 
the  advance  of  years,  the  power  of  activity  diminishes;  the 
body  (so  to  speak)  lives  much  more  slowly,  as  is  proved 
by  the  lessened  exhalation  of  carbonic  .acid  and  the 
diminished  excretion  of  ur'^a  ;  and,  the  waste  l)cing  thus 
lessened,  the  demand  for  food,  and  the  power  of  digest- 
in<'  it,  ore  proportionably  diminished.     Now,  this  abatc- 

19 


218 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


I:- 


^ 


ment  of  the  appetite  and  digestive  power  (like  that  -which 
is  felt  by  those  who  go  from  cold  or  temperate  climates 
to  reside  in  tropical  regions)  is  a  natural  warning  that  a 
smaller  amount  of  food  should  be  taken  in ;  and  if  it  be 
so  received,  and  no  more  nutriment  be  habitually  ingested 
than  the  appetite  legitimately  prompts,  the  digestive 
powers  will  be  found  as  adequate  as  in  a  state  of  gi-eater 
activity  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  the  system.  But  this 
abatement  is  very  commonly  regarded  Jis  an  indication  of 
the  failure  of  the  powers  of  the  stomach ;  and  recourse 
is  had  to  alcoholic  hquors,  with  the  view  of  re-exciting 
these.  Now,  although  from  such  a  practice,  when  very 
moderately  resorted  to,  less  prospective  evil  may  be  anti- 
cipated, as  regards  merely  the  eflfects  of  the  continual 
ingestion  of  alcohol  upon  the  stomach,  than  it  is  liable  to 
occasion  when  commenced  earlier  in  life ;  yet  it  is  very 
much  to  be  deprecated  on  another  account,  —  namely, 
that  it  forces  admission  into  the  syskm  (so  to  speak)  for 
a  larger  amount  of  alimentary  matter  than  it  can  appro- 
priate ;  and  as  all  the  organs  which  are  set  apart  for  the 
ehmination  of  the  superfluity  (the  kidneys,  the  liver, 
the  skin,  and  the  glandulae  of  the  intestinal  canal)  are 
less  easily  stimulated  to  increased  activity  in  the  dechne 
of  life  than  at  an  earlier  period,  it  follows  that  habitual 
excess  in  diet,  even  though  to  no  great  amount,  is  yet 
more  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  disorders  Avhich  it  tends 
to  produce.  And  hence  it  is,  more  especially,  that  we 
find  the  lithic  acid  diathesis  *  so  prone  to  manifest  itself 
in  advanced  life,  and  requiring  such  careful  dietetic 
management  for  its  correction. 

•  Lithic  acid  diathesis,  stute  of  tlio  system  which  tcnds^  to  form 
stone. 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


219 


206.  The  author  would  not  take  upon  him  to  deny, 
that  cases  may  present  themselves  in  which  the  habitual 
use  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  liquors  may  be  bene- 
ficial to  persons  advanced  in  life  and  not  suffering  under 
any  positive  ailment,  but  experienc'^^g  absolute  deficiency 
of  digestive  power  heyoTim  ai  '^h  is  in  conformit  / 
with  the  general  dechne  of  activity.  In  such  cases,  the 
benefit  to  be  expected  from  their  employment  is,  that 
the  stomach  should  be  assisted  in  the  digestion  of  the  food 
which  the  system  really  requires ;  and,  in  so  far  as  their 
use  is  carried  beyond  that  point,  it  is  hurtful  in  every 
way.  Such  cases  may  be  expected  to  be  rare  among 
those  who  have  habitually  observed  the  laws  of  health, 
and  who  have  not  prematurely  exhausted  the  powers  of 
their  digestive  apparatus  by  habitual  excess  in  diet  or  in 
mental  labor,  or  by  the  continual  use  of  stimulants. 
Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  have  adopted  the  habit, 
early  in  life,  of  relying  upon  the  aid  of  alcoholic  liquors 
for  the  performance  of  the  digestive  operation ;  or  who 
have  overtasked  their  nervous  systems,  and  thus  deprived 
the  stomach  of  the  nervous  power  which  it  requires ;  or 
who  have  impaired  their  vigor  by  breathing  a  foul  atmo- 
sphere, by  irregularity  and  insufiiciency  in  regard  to 
the  periods  of  repose,  or  by  various  other  departures  from 
the  ordinances  of  nature, — are  more  likely  to  suffer  in 
advanced  life  from  a  loss  of  digestive  power,  which 
no  treatment,  medical  or  hygienic,  can  ever  completely 
repair. 

207.  But  here,  as  in  all  other  instances,  if  the  pro- 
longation of  life  and  the  restoration  of  vigor  be  the 
paramount  objects  of  consideration,  recourse  should  at 
first  be  had  to  all  those  measures  of  general  hygiene 


220 


USE  OP  ALCOHOL 


/■ 


which  prudential  experience  would  recommend ;  and  the 
assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors  should  be  avoided,  with  a 
jealous  apprehension  of  their  prospective  evils,  until  it 
shall  appear  that  no  other  more  natural  means  can  bring 
about  the  desired  result.  Those  who  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  employing  them  during  the  whole  of  life  are 
certainly  those  who  are  least  likely  to  feel  able  to  dis- 
pense with  them  in  old  age ;  yet  experience  has  demon- 
strated, even  here,  that,  where  the  evil  results  of  their 
continued  use  have  begun  to  manifest  themselves, 
decided  and  permanent  benefit  has  followed  their  aban- 
donment; and,  where  it  was  believed  by  the  individual 
that  he  could  not  possibly  dispense  with  their  use,  the 
stomach  has  recovered  its  healthy  tone  (.specially  under 
the  copious  external  and  internal  use  of  cold  water, 
and  the  influence  of  an  invigorating  atmosphere),  so  as 
to  be  able  to  discharge  its  duties  for  the  remainder  of  life 
with  greater  ease  than  it  ever  previously  had  done.* 


208.  For  the  results  of  experience  on  this  and  other 
points,  any  statements  of  which  should  be  based  rather 
on  a  wide  and  general  survey  than  on  induction  from  a 
comparatively  limited  number  of  instances,  the  author 
has  thought  it  safest  to  rely  on  the  assurances  of  medical 
practitioners  in  the  New  England  States ;  since  the  entire 
disuse  of  fermented  liquora  has  been  now  practised  as  a 
habit,  for  some  years,  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation of  those  States,  including  those  who  are  most 
subject  to  those  influences  (the  "  wear  and  tear"  of  social 
hfe)  which  are  usually  regarded  as  most  powerfully  con- 


*  For  two  remarkable  cases  of  this  kind,  see  Appendix  C. 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


221 


spiring  to  render  the  assistance  of  stimulants  desirable. 
The  following  statements  on  this  subject  have  l)cen 
recently  put  forth  by  the  Massachusetts  Temperance 
Society,  under  the  sanction  of  their  distinguished  presi- 
dent, Dr.  Warren :  *  — 

209.  "  In  regard  to  the  habitual  use  of  wine,  it  is 
probable  that  the  change  of  opinion  is  greater  here  than 
in  Europe.  A  vast  number  of  persons  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic  have  wholly  abandoned  the  use  of  wine, 
cider,  and  malt  liquors;  and  many  of  those  who  con- 
tinue to  employ  them  have  great!}/  diminished  the  quan- 
tity. Wine  is  no  longer  thought  necessary  in  the 
convalescent  stage  of  fever.  Cider,  formerly  one  of 
the  household  provisions  of  almost  every  family  in  the 
North,  is  rarely  seen;  and  the  very  trees  which  pro- 
duced it  are  either  cut  down  for  fuel,  or  converted  to  the 
production  of  fruits  for  food.  The  stronger  beers  are 
quite  disused,  except  among  emigi-ants ;  and  even  the 
milder  are  employed  only  in  some  very  light  and  unstimu- 
lating  form  to  allay  thirst,  principally  in  the  hot  season. 
The  apprehension  that  a  sudden  disuse  of  fermented 
liquors  might  be  injurious  has  been  dispelled  by  a  vast 
number  of  cases,  in  which,  after  long-continued  employ- 
ment, a  sudden  and  total  abandonment  has  taken  place, 
not  only  without  impairing  health  and  comfort,  but  with 
positive  improvement  in  strength,  activity,  and  agreeable 
sensations.  How  common  is  it  amongst  us  to  see  per- 
sons who  in  former  times  used  wine  freely,  and  who  have 
now  given  it  up,  present  an  appearance  of  mental 
and  bodily  vigor  they  had  not  exhibited  before!     The 

♦  Preface  to  the  reprint  of  an  Essay  on  the  Physiological  Effects 
of  Alcoholic  Drinks,  from  Dr.  Forbes's  Review,  Boston,  N.E.  1848, 
19* 


222 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


influence  of  such  a  change  of  habit  in  the  wealthier 
classes  has  been  great  beyond  calculation,  in  leading  the 
mass  of  society  to  abandon  the  use  of  spirits,  and  to 
repeat  an  experiment  already  made  by  those  whom  they 
are  accustomed  to  respect  and  follow.  Such  having  been 
the  consequences  of  the  disuse  of  wine,  how  desirable  is 
it  that  all  those  who  have  not  abandoned  it,  who  wish 
well  to  their  fellow-men,  and  are  willing  to  show  that 
they  are  capable  of  making  the  sacrifices  they  advise, 
should  submit  to  a  privation  which  they  have  sufficient 
reason  to  beheve  will  be  most  salutary  to  tuemselves  and 
others ! " 

210.  The  extent  of  change  of  habit,  in  this  respect, 
among  the  middle  and  higher  classes  of  society  in  Bos- 
ton, and  other  great  towns  of  New  England,  may  be 
judged  of  from  the  fact  that  many  of  those  pubUc  festi- 
vities at  which  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  con- 
sidered indispensable  in  this  country  are  there  conducted 
without  any  such  artificial  excitement.  "  Of  late  years" 
(we  quote  the  same  authority),  "  we  have  had  the  grati- 
fication of  witnessing  so  many  exceptions  to  the  former 
praxjtice,  that  it  appears  very  probable  the  rule  will 
be  reversed,  and  the  exceptions  change  to  the  opposite 
side.  The  great  festivals  on  the  anniversary  of  National 
Independence  are  in  many  places  celebrated  without  other 
stimulus  than  that  of  patriotic  feeling.  The  annual 
ceremonies  of  our  literary  institutions,  too  often  stained 
by  lavish  draughts  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  are  now 
purified  hy  the  effusions  of  chastened  wit,  and  elevated 
by  the  flights  of  an  unclouded  imagination.  Most  of  the 
universities,  and  particularly  the  oldest,  and  we  may 
perhaps  venture  to  say  the  most  distinguished,  have 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL  CASES. 


228 


unshackled  themselves  from  the  chains  of  ancient  habit. 
Under  the  influence  of  a  maatT-spirit  (President  Everett) 
the  great  annual  festival  of  Commencement  at  Cambridge 
University  has  been  accomplished  without  the  aid  of 
wine ;  and  the  oldest  of  our  literary  fraternities,  the  Phi 
Beta  Kappa  Society,  has  enjoyed  the  excitement  of  a 
social  meeting  without  the  consequent  depression  fi-om 
artificial  stimulus.  Wine  is  no  longer  admitted  at  the 
yearly  convocation  of  the  clergy,  or  the  assemblage  of 
the  medical  profession  of  this  State.  The  great  associ- 
ation of  mechanics  of  the  metropolis  hold  a  brilliant 
triennial  feast,  from  which  every  kind  of  alcoholic,  fer- 
mented, vinous,  and  other  stimulating  liquid  is  wholly 
excluded."* 


i" 


211.  On  the  whole,  then,  the  writer  thinks  that  phy- 
siology and  experience  alike  sanction  the  conclusion,  that, 
although  there  are  states  of  the  stomach  in  which  the 
diminished  appetite  and  digestive  poAver  prevent  the  recep- 
tion of  an  adequate  supply  of  aliment  into  the  system, 
and  in  which  the  assistance  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  tempo- 
rarily beneficial,  that  assistance  is  rather  a  palliative 


may 
have 


*  "  In  order  to  give  a  mora  exact  idea  of  the  importance  of  the 
celebrations  alluded  to  above,  we  have  thought  it  well  to  state 
the  number  of  persons  that  attended  them,  as  nearly  as  can  be 
ascertained :  — 

Fourth  of  July  Celebration  in  Faneuil  Hall 1000 

Commencement  at  Cambridge  University 300 

Festival  of  Phi  Beta  Kappa 150 

Festival  of  the  Clergy 200 

Festival  of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society       ....     300 
Festival  of  the  Massachusetts  Mechanics'  Association    .    .     600  " 


224 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


than  a  cure  of  the  condition  which  calls  for  it ;  and,  if 
perseveringly  had  recourse  to,  is  likely  to  induce  a  train 
of  evils  of  its  own;  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  by  the 
apparent  support  which  it  gives,  and  by  rendering  the 
system  more  tolerant  of  the  unfavorable  influences  from 
which  its  depression  of  power  may  have  proceeded,  it 
renders  the  individual  less  disposed  to  seek,  in  a  change 
of  habit,  the  remedies  which  will  be  really  effectual. 
"  Thus,"  as  an  American  physician  has  remarked  to  the 
writer,  "  where  you  (the  English  practitioner)  recom- 
mend to  a  man  losing  his  digestive  power,  from  the  fatigue 
and  confinement  of  a  city  life,  to  take  wine,  porter,  or 
bitter  alp,  with  his  dinner,  we  order  him  out  of  town, 
to  get  fresh  air,  and  the  refreshment  of  idleness  in  the 
country."  No  man  of  observation  can  doubt  which  of 
these  two  systems  is  likely  to  be  most  beneficial  in  the 
long-run. 

212.  But,  again,  the  writer  believes  that  there  are 
exceptional  cases,  arising  chiefly  from  peculiarity  of  ori- 
ginal constitution,  in  which  the  want  of  digestive  power 
is  more  completely  and  permanently  supplied  by  the 
habitual  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  alcoholic  hquors  than 
it  can  be  by  any  other  means  within  the  power  of  the 
individual.  It  may  be  impossible  to  predicate,  in  any 
individual  instance,  whether  this  shall  be  the  case  or  not ; 
but  the  results  of  observation  appear  sufficient  to  prove, 
that  it  would  be  erroneous  to  assert  dogmatically  that  it 
never  can  be.  Still,  the  evils  resulting  from  the  unne- 
cessary employment  of  stimulants  are  so  great  that 
recourse  should  never  be  had  to  them,  until  every  other 
more  natural  method  of  sustaining  the  vital  powers  has 
been  tried  without  success.     They  should  never  be  em- 


IN   EXCEPTIONAL   CASES. 


225 


ployed  to  repliice  any  hygienic  rofiuiremcnt,  such  as  fresh 
air,  mental  repose,  muscular  exercise,  &o. ;  and  they 
should  be  disused  whenever  it  may  appear  that  the 
necessity  for  them  no  longer  exists. 


226 


CHAPTER  IV. 


< } 


IS  THE  EMPLOYMENT  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUORS  NE- 
CESSARY IN  THE  PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE?  IF 
SO,  IN  WHAT  DISEASES,  OR  IN  WHAT  FORMS 
AND  STAGES  OF  DISEASE,  IS  THE  USE  OF  THEM 

NECESSARY  OR  BENEFICIAL? 

U 

u 

213.  Those  who  maintain  that  alcoholic  liquors  are 
not  requisite  for  the  ordinary  sustenance  of  man,  or  even 
that  they  are  likely  to  be  rather  prejudicial  than  other- 
wise when  habitually  taken  in  small  quantities,  —  that,  in 
fact,  alcohol  is  to  almost  every  one  a  true  poison,  slower 
or  more  rapid  in  its  operation,  according  to  the  rate  at 
which  it  is  taken,  —  may  still  maintain,  with  perfect 
consistency,  that  (like  many  other  poisons)  it  may  be  a 
most  valuable  remedy,  when  administered,  with  caution 
and  discrimination,  in  various  forms  of  disease.  In  re- 
plying to  the  above  question,  we  shall  first  look  at  the 
inferences  which  we  may  draw  from  the  physiological 
action  of  alcohol  in  regard  to  the  conditions  of  the  system 
in  which  it  is  most  likely  to  be  useful. 


I  i 


I.     RECOVERY   FROM   SHOCK. 


V\ 


213.  We  have  seen  that  alcohol,  when  introduced  into 
the  circulation,  acts  as  a  stimulant  in  augmenting  the 
force  and  rapidity  of  the  heart's  contractions,  and  that  it 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL,    ETC. 


227 


w 


also  increases  the  excitability  of  the  nervous  system ;  we 
have  found,  moreover,  that  it  supplies  the  means  of 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat,  which  may  be  advantage- 
ously employed  when  other  means  are  deficient.  Hence 
we  should  say,  that  alcoholic  liquors  may  be  advantage- 
ously employed  to  assist  in  rousing  the  system  from  the 
effects  of  agencies  of  various  kinds,  which  threaten  for  a 
time  to  produce  a  fatal  depression  of  the  vital  powers ; 
such,  for  exar  pie,  as  severe  injuries  that  produce  a 
violent  shock,  under  the  primary  effect  of  which  the  sys- 
tem appears  likely  to  sink.  But  great  caution  must 
be  used  in  their  administration,  and  they  should  not  be 
given  unless  there  appears  to  be  a  positive  necessity  for 
doing  so  (J.  e.  unless  the  patient  appears  Ukely  to  sink 
without  them) ;  for  it  is  as  certain  that  re-actionary 
excitement  will  follow  a  primary  depression  as  it  is  that 
depression  will  be  consequent  upon  primary  excitement ; 
and,  if  stimulants  have  been  unnecessarily  employed, 
the  difficulty  of  controlhng  the  re-action  will  be  increased. 
This  caution  is  more  aspecially  necessary  where  the  Orain 
is  the  part  to  which  the  injury  has  occurred ;  since  the 
special  determination  of  alcohol  to  this  organ  will  increase 
the  violence  of  the  re-action  in  a  most  dangerous  man- 
ner. 

214.  There  is  no  class  of  cases,  perhaps,  in  which 
the  good  effects  of  stimulants  in  maintaining  the  heart's 
action,  and  in  keeping  up  the  nervous  excitability,  are 
more  manifest  than  in  those  severe  and  extensive  burns 
of  the  trunk  of  the  body  to  which  the  children  of  the 
lower  classes  are  peculiarly  liable,  from  their  clothes 
taking  fire  tlirough  carelessness  or  negligence.  The 
shock  given  by  this  injury  to  the  deUcate  and  im- 


228 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


Y 


pressibie  system  of  the  child  is  often  rapidly  fatal ;  the 
heart's  action  being  extremely  depressed,  the  nervous 
power  reduced,  and  the  body  gradually  cooling,  until  its 
temperature  falls  to  a  degree  incompatible  with  the  main- 
tenance of  life.  The  writer  has  witnessed  many  such 
cases,  in  which  hfe  oociiicd  to  be  kept  in  the  body  by  the 
frequent  administration  of  a  spoonful  of  cordial,  but  in 
which  death  supervened  upon  a  short  intermission  of  the 
stimulus ;  the  nurses  in  hospitals  being  generally  pos- 
sessed with  the  belief  that  the  little  patients  viust  die, 
and  being  too  frequently  careless  in  the  employment  of 
the  only  means  by  which  hfe  can  be  sustained. 


II.    TREATMENT   OF  ACUTE   DISEASES. 

215.  Resistance  to  the  Depressing  Influence  of  Mor- 
bific *  Agents.  —  In  the  class  of  cases  to  which  reference 
has  just  been  made,  the  shock  is  temporary ;  and,  if  the 
patient  can  be  kept  ahve  until  the  system  has  recovered 
from  its  immediate  consequences,  a  great  point  is  gained. 
There  is  another  class  of  cases  in  which  the  depression 
is  produced  by  a  morbific  agency,  and  in  which  it  is  of 
equal  importance  to  keep  up  the  vital  powers  for  a  tune ; 
since,  if  they  can  be  sustained  for  a  few  hours  or  days, 
the  patient  has  a  fair  cl  ance  for  recovery.  Of  such  we 
have  examples  in  many  forms  of  fever ;  especially  in 
those  which  run  a  tolerably  determinate  course,  and 
which  exert  their  noxious  influence  rather  in  producing  a 
general  depression  of  the  vital  powers  than  in  occasioning 
any  decided  local  lesion.     No  two  epidemics  of  fever  are 


Morbific,  that  which  produces  disease. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


229 


precisely  alike ;  and  the  treatment  which  is  of  service  in 
one  may  be  found  injurious  in  the  other,  notwithstanding 
that  the  general  type  may  be  the  same.  A  severe 
epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  which  the  writer  witnessed 
in  Edinburgh  in  the  years  1836-7,  aflforded  him  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  decided  efficacy  of  alcoholie 
stimulants  in  one  form  at  least  of  this  fever ;  the  oppo- 
site methods  of  treatment,  followed  by  two  physicians 
whose  practice  he  watched,  being  attended  with  such 
different  results,  that,  as  the  cases  were  of  the  same 
class,  and  the  other  conditions  identical,  there  was  no 
other  way  of  accounting  for  the  difference.  By  neither 
physician  were  any  active  measures  taken  during  the 
early  stages  of  the  fever,  for  none  seemed  called  for : 
but,  in  one  set  of  cases,  the  same  expectant  practice  was 
continued  to  the  end ;  whilst,  in  the  other,  the  adminis- 
tration of  wine  and  spirit  was  commenced,  as  soon  as  the 
weakness  of  the  pulse,  and  the  coldness  of  the  extremi- 
ties, indicated  the  incipient  failure  of  the  circulating  and 
calorifying  *  powers.  The  quantity  was  increased  as  the 
necessities  of  the  patient  seemed  to  require ;  and,  in  one 
case  (that  of  a  woman  whose  habits  had  been  previously 
intemperate,  and  on  whom  a  more  potent  stimulus  was 
therefore  needed  to  make  an  impression),  a  bottle  of 
sherry  with  twelve  ounces  of  whiskey  was  the  daily 
allowance  for  a  week  or  more, — the  patient  ultimately 
recovering.  Now,  the  result  of  this  wine- treatment  was, 
that  the  mortality  was  not  above  a  third  of  that  of  the 
simple  expectant  treatment;  the  patients  dying  under 
the  latter  from  actual  exhaustion  and  &ilure  of  oalori- 


Calorifying,  producing  heat. 


20 


280 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


'l\ 


^ying  power,  and  no  local  lesion*  being  detectible  on 
post-mortem  examination. 

216.  It  is  bj  no  means  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory 
rationale  ^  of  this  beneficial  action.  The  immediate 
cause  of  death  in  such  cases  appears  to  be  a  failure  of 
the  power  of  the  heart,  the  contractions  of  which,  in  the 
advanced  stage  of  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  become 
progressively  feebler  and  more  rapid ;  and  it  has  been 
noticed  by  Drs.  Stokes  and  Graves,  as  the  best  indica- 
tion for  the  use  of  wine,  that  the  impulse  is  greatly 
diminished,  and  that  the  first  sound  becomes  very  feeble, 
or  is  entirely  extinguished.  Now,  the  efiect  of  wine, 
where  it  acts  beneficially,  is  to  render  the  heart's  action 
more  vigorous,  and  at  the  same  time  slower.  Again, 
with  this  state  of  the  circulation  we  generally  have  a  low 
muttering  and  restless  delirium,  with  an  approach  to 
Bubsultus  tendinum ;  %  and,  if  the  wine  acts  beneficially, 
it  renders  the  patient  more  tranquil,  and  disposes  him  to 
sleep.  Under  the  influence  of  wine,  too,  in  suitable 
cases,  the  skin  and  tongue  become  moister,  and  the 
breathing  more  deep  and  slow ;  but,  if  the  wine  be  acting 
injuriously,  the  skin  and  tongue  become  drier,  and  the 
respiratory  movements  more  hurried.  Concurrently  with 
the  failure  of  the  heart's  action,  there  seems  often  to  be 
a  deficiency  of  heat-producing  material ;  all  that  was  pre- 
viously contained  in  the  body  having  been  burned  off 
during  the  earlier  period  of  the  fever,  and  little  or  none 
having  been  taken  in  from  without.  Day  by  day,  the 
fiitty  matter  of  the  body  is  used  up  by  the  respiratory 

•  Lesion,  injury. 

t  Rationale,  explanation. 

X  SubauItuB  tentUnumf  twitching  of  the  tendons,  spasms. 


ill 


m  THE  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


231 


process ;  and  thus,  as  in  cases  of  simple  starvation,  the 
patient  must  die  of  coldf  unless  some  means  be  provided 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  heat.  In  such  a  condition  of 
the  system,  no  farinaceous  or  oleaginous  matters  could 
be  digested  or  absorbed  in  sujBficient  quantity ;  whereas 
alcohol  is  taken  into  the  current  of  the  circulation  by 
simple  endosmose,*  without  any  preparation  whatever, 
and  can  be  immediately  applied  to  the  production  of 
heat. 

217.  Now,  in  the  cases  in  which  the  alcohol  is  thus 
useful,  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  stimulaling'  ef- 
fects. This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  the  fact,  that  the 
alcohol  is  burned  off  nearly  aa  fast  as  it  is  introduced 
(the  general  rule  in  such  cases  being  to  give  a  small 
quantity  at  a  time,  but  to  repeat  this  frequently);  but 
it  would  ako  appear  to  result  in  part  from  this,  —  that 
the  stimulating'  power  of  the  alcohol  is  expended  in  neu- 
tralizing (so  to  speak)  the  depressing"  influence  of  the 
fever-poison  already  in  the  system,  and  that  it  simply 
tends,  therefore,  to  restore  both  the  heart  and  the  brain 
to  their  condition  of  normal  activity.  Where  the  habits 
of  the  patient  have  been  previously  intemperate,  the 
ordinary  doses  of  alcoholic  stimulants  have  no  percepti- 
ble effect ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  go  on  increasing  them, 
until  some  marked  influence  is  exerted  by  them,  as  in 
the  case  just  now  cited. 

218.  It  is  not  only  in  the  idiopathic  typhoid  and  typhus 
fevers  that  alcohol  thus  becomes  the  most  important  re- 
medy which  the  physician  has  at  his  command ;  for  it  is 
equally  so  in  the  typhoid  states  of  other  diseases,  especially 


Endosmose,  suction. 


^82 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


erysipelaa  and  the  exj'nthemata ;  *  and  it  ia  in  the  typhoid 
form  of  erysipelas,  which  so  often  presents  itself  in  men 
of  the  bad  habit  of  body  resulting  from  habitual  intem- 
perance (*§>  63),  that  the  largest  quantities  of  alcohoUc 
stimulants  may  be  given,  without  any  other  perceptible 
effect  than  that  most  beneficial  one,  —  the  support  of  the 
system  whilst  the  disease  runs  its  course. 

219.  Recovery  from  States  of  Prostr  alien. — During 
the  stage  of  convalescence  from  fevers  and  acute  inflam- 
matory diseases,  in  which  the  vital  powers  have  been 
greatly  depressed,  it  will  frequently  happen  that  the  use 
of  alcoholic  liquors  will  be  decidedly  beneficial ;  and  this 
apparently  in  two  ways,  —  by  raising  the  nervous  system 
jfrom  that  low  irritative  state  which  is  the  conseq -jnce  of 
depressed  vital  power,  and  by  increasing  the  digestive 
power  of  the  stomach  and  the  general  nutritive  activity 
of  the  system,  so  that  the  reparative  processes  take  place 
more  rapidly,  and  the  general  vigor  is  more  speedily 
restored.  Every  practical  man  must  have  perceived,  that 
the  state  of  debihty  in  which  the  patient  is  left  after  the 
termination  of  an  acute  disease  is  extremely  different 
from  the  state  of  exhaustion  consec^uent  upon  a  long- 
continued  course  of  over-excitement.  The  former  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  shock  ;  the  vital  powers  are  not  so 
much  exhausted  as  depressed  ;  and  recovery  is  best  pro- 
moted by  arousing  the  system,  so  far  as  possible,  to  the 
due  performance  of  its  functions.  If  alcoholic  stimulants 
are  really  beneficial  under  such  circumstances,  they  make 
their  utility  apparent  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  advanced 
stage  of  typhoid  fever ;  that  is,  by  reducing  tho  rapidity 


*  Exanthemata,  eruptiTO  fevers. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


233 


of  the  heart's  action  at  the  same  time  that  its  strength 
increases,  and  by  cakning  the  mind  instead  of  exciting  it. 
Dr.  A.  Combe  mentions  the  case  of  a  delicate  lady,  who, 
during  recovery  from  fever,  took  to  the  extent  of  a  bottle 
of  Madeira  in  twenty-four  hours,  with  these  obviously 
beneficial  results.  It  is  well  known  that  much  depends, 
in  this  condition,  on  procuring  as  speedy  a  renewal  as 
possible  of  the  normal  actions  of  nutrition ;  es))ecially 
where  either  the  disease,  or  the  treatment  it  has  required, 
has  caused  them  to  be  greatly  lowered,  or  almost  entirely 
suspended ;  for  there  is  great  danger  lest  the  convalescent 
should  pass  into  a  cachectic  condition,  "^  and  a  foundation 
be  laid  for  tubercular  f  or  other  forms  of  disease  depend- 
ent upon  the  imperfect  performance  of  the  nutritive  pro- 
cesses. Hence,  if,  when  these  operations  are  just  being 
renewed,  a  little  increased  energy  can  be  artificially 
imparted  to  them,  we  have  a  better  hope  of  escape  from 
these  evil  consequences.  As  a  general  rule,  no  alcoholic 
stimulants  should  be  employed,  until  after  the  complete 
subsidence  of  the  inflammatory  processes :  but  this  rule  is 
not  invariable ;  for  a  stnte  of  chronic  inflammation  is  often 
kept  up  by  the  low  and  imperfect  state  of  the  general 
nutritive  operations,  and  hence  (as  Professor  Alison  was 
wont  to  teach  and  to  practise  with  great  success),  however 
contradictory  it  may  at  fii-st  appear,  we  may  frequently 
combine  a  general  tonic  or  somewhat  stimulant  regimen 
with  local  depletion  or  counter-irritation.  % 

220.   When  alcoholic  stimulants  are  employed  for 
these    purposes,    the   greatest   care   and  watchfulness 

*  Cachectic  condition,  state  of  permanent  and  general  disease, 
t  Tubercular,  consumptive,  scrofulous. 
%  Counter-irritation,  blistering  or  irritating  the  skin. 
20* 


234 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


Bhould  be  used  in  their  administration,  both  to  avoid 
doing  positive  mischief  by  an  over-dose,  and  also  to 
avoid  bringing  the  system  into  a  habit  of  dependence 
upon  them,  and  thereby  predisposing  it  to  the  various 
remoter  evils  formerly  described.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  a  course  of  over-indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors  haa 
frequently  commenced  with  the  therapeutic*  use  of  thein; 
and  it  is  extremely  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  medical 
practitioner  should  enforce  the  diminution  of  the  dose, 
and  the  final  discontinuance  of  the  remedy,  at  the  earliest 
possible  period,  —  substituting,  if  he  should  think  it 
necessary,  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol  in  some  medici- 
nal form,  — in  order  that  the  patient  may  have  as  little 
motive  as  possible  for  continuing  its  use,  after  the  time 
for  its  really  beneficial  action  has  passed. 

221.  Support  under  Exhausting'  Drains. — There 
is  another  class  of  cases,  in  which  the  stimulating  action 
of  alcoholic  hquors  may  be  occasionally  had  recourse  to 
with  advantage ;  those,  namely,  in  which  there  is  great 
drain  upon  the  nutritive  material,  owing  to  some  dis- 
ordered action  which  at  the  same  time  lowers  the  vital 
powers  of  the  system,  —  such,  especially,  as  an  extensive 
suppurating  f  surface.  Now,  here  the  general  rule,  that 
the  appetite  and  the  digestive  power  are  proportionate 
to  the  demand  for  nutriment  in  the  body,  does  not  hold 
good ;  since  the  depressing  influence  of  the  disease  lowers 
the  functional  activity  of  the  digestive  apparatus  to  such 
a  degree  that  it  cannot  supply  what  is  needed ;  and  thus 
there  is  a  progressive  diminution  of  the  nutritive  solids 
of  the  blood,  which  still  further  depresses  the  vital 

*  Therapeutic,  medicinal.  .    ' 

t  Suppwratmgt  discharging  matter  as  from  «  sore. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


285 


powers  of  the  system.  We  should  therefore  anticipate  a 
beneficial  result  from  such  an  employment  of  alcoholio 
Btimulants  as  would  for  a  time  augment  the  digestive 
power  of  the  stomach,  and  would  thus  enable  it  to  appro- 
priate and  prepare  the  amount  of  nutritive  matter  which 
the  system  really  needs,  whilst  at  the  same  time  its  gene- 
ral powers  are  sustained  under  the  depressing  influence 
of  the  disease.  Experience  shows  that  such  is  the  case ; 
and  that,  under  such  circumstances,  alcoholic  liquors  may 
be  beneficially  employed,  not  so  much  to  stimulate  the 
heart,  or  the  nervous  system,  nor  to  take  the  place  of 
"^olid  food ;  but,  by  stimulating  the  stomach,  to  augment 
the  quantity  of  solid  material  which  it  can  advantageously 
receive. 

222.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  unfavor- 
able course  which  febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases  are 
disposed  to  run  in  the  habitually  intemperate  ;  this  being 
chiefly  dependent  upon  the  imperfect  elaboration  *  of 
plastic  t  material,  which  predisposes  to  suppurative  ac- 
ti<Mi,  or  to  gangrenous  %  or  phagedenic  ||  ulceration,  and 
impedes  the  attempt  at  regeneration,<§i  which  constitutes  a 
most  important  part  of  the  sthenic  IT  form  of  inflammation. 
A  similar  disposition  to  the  asthenic  **  form  of  inflam- 
matory disease  and  its  severe  consequences  is  seen  among 
the  habitually  ill-fed,  ill-lodged,  ill-clothed  inhabitants 
of  the  densest  and  worst-drained  parts  of  our  great  towns, 

*  Elaboration,  manufacture, 
t  Plastic,  adhesive. 

X  Gangrenous,  tending  to  mortification. 
II   Phagedenic,  corroding,  eating  in. 
§  Regeneration,  formation  of  new  ftubstancc. 
^  Sthenic,  vigorous,  active. 
•♦  Asthenic,  feeble* 


286 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


many  of  whom  are  also  intemperate;  and,  in  many  of 
these  cases,  it  would  seem  requisite  to  support  the  system 
by  alcoholic  liquors,  oven  during  the  acute  stage  of  an 
inflammatory  attack,  in  order  to  enable  it  to  resist  the 
depressing  influence  of  the  disease,  and  to  bear  the  requi- 
site treatment.  Whatever  augments  the  plasticity  of  the 
fibrne,  up  to  a  certain  point,  is  likely  to  be  beneficial ; 
and,  as  the  great  object  in  such  cases  is  to  give  the  requi- 
site support  without  stimulus,  the  use  of  malt-liquors  will 
be  indicated.  Here,  too,  we  find  that  experience  is  in 
full  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  theory,  and  that 
ale  and  porter  are  frequently  the  physician's  and  sur- 
geon's main  stay  under  such  circumstances.  They  must, 
however,  be  very  guardedly  employed ;  and  the  test  of 
their  beneficial  influence  will  be  found  in  the  absence 
of  stimulating  effects,  and  in  the  improvement  of  the 
character  of  the  inflammatory  process;  which  will  be 
made  known,  where  there  is  purulent  *  discharge,  by  the 
conversion  of  a  thin,  sanious,f  fetid  %  pus  into  that  which 
is  expressively  designated  by  the  term  "  laudable,"  ||  and 
by  the  stoppage  of  an  extending  gangrene  or  phagedaena. 
223.  The  foregoing  are  the  principal  forms  of  acute 
disease,  in  which  recourse  may  be  advantageously  had  to 
alcoholic  liquors  ;  but  the  writer  would  remark,  that, 
whilst  general  principles  may  be  thus  laid  down,  their 
application  to  each  individual  case  must  be  left  to  the  dis- 
crimination and  tact  of  the  practitioner,  since  no  two  cases 
are  alike  in  all  their  conditions ;  and  it  will  frequently 


•  Purulent,  mattery. 

t  Sanious,  attended  with  watery  blood. 

X  Fetid,  foul,  corrupt. 

II  Lai*dabk,  healthy. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT   OV  DISEASE. 


237 


happen  that  even  the  most  experienced  physician  and 
surgeon  will  find  it  necessary  to  be  rather  guided  by  the 
result  of  trials  cautiously  made  than  by  any  rules  what- 
ever. In  cases  of  fever,  it  may  bo  especially  noticed, 
that  the  instinct  of  the  patient,  shown  by  his  desire  for 
wine,  or  his  disposition  to  reject  it,  will  generally  prove 
a  most  valuable  guide,  even  when  his  intelligence  is 
prostrated. 

224.  Forms  of  Alcoholic  Liquors  most  desirable.  — 
The  diflfercnt  forms  of  alcoholic  liquors  must  not  be  used 
indiscriminately  in  these  varying  conditions;  for  their  ope- 
ration upon  the  system  diflfers  considerably,  and  there  are 
certain  conditions  of  the  body  to  which  each  is  especially 
appropriate.  Thus,  distilled  spirit  is  the  most  rapid  and 
powerful  in  its  action  upon  the  heart  and  nervous  system ; 
and  hence  it  is  the  most  potent  fonn  of  alcohohc  liquor 
in  those  states  of  alarming  depression  from  which  we 
desire  to  arouse  the  patient  as  rapidly  as  possible.  We 
find,  too,  that  it  is  frequently  requisite  to  administer 
spirits  to  patients  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  free  or 
excessive  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors,  under  circum- 
stances in  wliich  wine  would  otherwise  be  preferable, 
e.  g.  in  fever ;  the  milder  stimulus,  in  such  cases,  not 
producing  the  effect  we  desire.  Where,  however,  we 
desire  to  give  more  continued  support,  with  less  of  sti- 
mulation, it  is  not  usually  desirable  to  administer  distilled 
spirit,  and  wine  will  be  found  the  preferable  form  :  this 
is  especially  the  case  in  the  advanced  stage  of  fever, 
and  in  convaliescence  from  acute  diseases.  On  the  other 
hand,  where  we  desire  to  give  still  greater  support  with 
as  little  stimulation  as  possible,  as  in  the  class  of  cases 
last  referred  to,  malt-liquor  may  be  more  advantageously 


288 


U8B  OF  ALCOUOL 


employed ;  aa  the  alcohol,  probably  from  its  peculiar  state 
of  admixture,  is  less  disposed  to  exert  its  remote  effects, 
and  the  nutritive  matter  with  which  it  is  combined  is  in 
itself  beneficial ;  whilst  the  bitter  and  somewhat  calma- 
tive properties  of  the  hop  aid  in  producing  the  desired 
effect  upon  the  stomach. 


III.     TREATMENT   OF   CHRONIC   DISEASES. 

225.  Of  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  in  the  treatment 
of  chronic*  diseases,  however,  it  becomes  us  to  speak 
with  much  greater  caution ;  the  condition  of  the  system 
under  the  depressing'  influence  of  "  shock  "  or  of  poison- 
ous agents  being  very  different  from  that  which  results 
from  the  exhaustion  of  its  powers  through  chronic  dis- 
eases, although  debility  is  a  characteristic  of  both.  The 
writer's  idea  of  the  difference  between  the  two  states, 
and  of  the  relations  of  each  to  alcoholic  stimulants,  may 
perhaps  be  best  explained  by  a  simple  illustration.  When 
a  vigorous  man  is  prostrated  by  a  violent  blow,  he  speedily 
rallies  from  it,  and  is  all  the  better  for  the  aid  of  a  help- 
ing hand  in  getting  on  his  legs  again.  But  if  the  same 
man  expend  his  powers  in  a  prolonged  pugilistic  encoun- 
ter, although  he  may  not  have  received  any  one  severe 
injury,  he  becomes  at  last  so  exhausted  that  no  helping 
hand  can  avail  him  any  thing,  and  he  sinks  beneath  the 
slightest  force  put  forth  by  his  opponent ;  nothing  but 
time  and  rest  being  then  effectual  for  his  restoration. 
In  general,  then,  it  is  believed  by  the  writer  that  little 
permanent  good  can  be  expected  from  the  use  of  alcoholic 
Btimulants  in  chronic  diseases,  so  far,  at  least,  aa  regards 
*  Chronic,  of  long  duration. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


289 


their  stimulant  operation  upon  the  heart  and  nervous 
system ;  and  >vhat  benefit  they  are  capable  of  conferring 
will  be  obtained  by  their  improvement  of  the  digestive 
power,  and  of  the  processes  of  primary  assimilation.*  But 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  temporary  improvement 
which  can  sometimes  be  thus  obtained  is  not  really  fal- 
lacious, —  like  that  which  we  see  in  the  burning  of  a 
lamp,  just  after  the  raising  of  the  wick,  when  there  is 
a  deficiency  of  oil ;  since  it  is  procured,  not  by  the  re- 
animation  of  power  which  exists  in  the  body,  but  has 
previously  lain  dormant,  but  by  the  more  rapid  con- 
sumption of  the  small  stock  of  power  left.  And  the 
question  of  their  benefit  or  injury  will  often  depend  upon 
whether,  by  this  more  rapid  consumption,  new  vigor  can 
be  infused  into  the  system  by  the  introduction  of  new 
material. 

226.  The  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants  in  such  cases 
has  been  hitherto  so  customary  with  medical  men,  that 
it  may  seem  to  be  running  in  the  face  of  the  established 
results  of  experience  to  deny  or  even  to  doubt  their 
eflScacy.  But  we  have  seen  reason,  within  a  recent 
period,  to  deny  or  doubt  the  efficacy  of  many  systems  of 
treatment  of  chronic  diseases  which  long-continued  ex- 
perience appeared  to  have  sanctioned,  and  to  believe  that 
the  vis  medicatrix\  of  the  system  is  often  itself  the 
great  restorer,  when  time  is  given  for  its  operation,  and 
other  circumstances  concur  to  favor  it.  And  it  is  espe- 
cially important,  in  judging  of  the  action  of  all  remedies 
which  must  be  persevered  in  for  some  time  in  order  to 


*  Auimilaiion,  converaion  of  food  into  living  substance, 
t  V%»  medicatrix,  inherent  healing  power. 


240 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 


produce  any  decided  result,  to  take  their  remote  conse- 
quences fully  into  account,  and  to  consider  how  far  these 
are,  or  are  not,  favorable  to  our  object.  Now,  the  writer 
has  endeavored  to  show,  that  the  remote  consequences  of 
the  continued  use  oi  alcoholic  liquors,  even  in  small 
quantity,  are  all  of  them  so  unfavorable  to  health,  that, 
if  the  immediate  invigoration  of  the  digestive  power  and 
of  the  assimilative  processes,  which  seems  to  be  their 
(mly  beneficial  eflfect  under  such  circumstances,  can  be 
obtained  in  some  other  way,  it  will  be  most  desirable  to 
avoid  their  use. 

227.  This  will  be  more  particularly  the  case,  when 
the  causes  of  the  disordered  state  have  been  such  as  to 
exhaust  the  vital  energy  of  the  stomach  itself;  such  as 
long-continued  excess  in  diet,  and  habitual  indulgence 
in  a  moderate  allowance  of  fermented  liquors,  especially 
when  accompanied  by  exhaustion  of  the  nervous  power  by 
over-exertion  or  anxiety  of  mind.  It  is  quite  absurd  to 
expect,  that  any  change  or  variety  of  direct  stimulation 
can  re-invigorate  the  digestive  apparatus  under  such 
circumstances.  We  may  keep  our  patient  in  town  at 
his  usual  occupations,  practise  all  kinds  of  experiments 
upon  his  stomach,  recommend  fat  bacon  or  lean  chops, 
prescribe  blue  pill  and  senna-draught,  or  quinine  and 
calumbo,  and  ring  the  changes  upon  all  the  wines, 
spirits,  and  malt-liquors  which  the  cellar  can  furnish, 
without  effecting  any  permanent  benefit.  Whereas,  if 
he  can  be  induced  to  give  himself  a  complete  holiday  ; 
to  betake  himself  to  some  agreeable  spot,  where  there  is 
suflficient  to  interest,  but  nothing  to  excite ;  to  inhale  the 
fresh  and  invigorating  breezes  of  a  mountaanous  coun- 
try, in  place  of  the  close  and  deteriorated  atmosphere  of 


IN  THB  TREATMENT  OF  DISEASE. 


241 


a  town ;  to  promote  the  copious  action  of  his  skin  by 
exercise,  sweating,  and  free  ablution ;  to  wash  out  his 
inside,  ff.nd  increase  the  tonic  power  of  his  stomach  with 
occasional  (but  not  excessive)  draughts  of  cold  water ; 
and  to  trust  to  the  natural  call  of  appetite  alone,  in 
preference  to  artificial  provocatives,  —  we  shall  be  giving 
him  the  best  possible  chance  of  permanent  restoration  to 
health. 

228.  There  is  perhaps  no  class  of  cases  in  which  the 
benefits  of  the  hydropathic  treatment  are  so  strikingly 
displayed,  especially  when  it  is  carried  on  in  a  spot 
where  all  other  aids  concur  to  make  it  most  effectual ; 
and,  reasoning  from  analogy,  the  writer  is  strongly  in- 
clined to  believe,  that  it  would  be  of  similar  efficacy  in 
re-invigorating  the  system  exhausted  by  other  forms  of 
chronic  disease,  and  would  in  most  cases  be  preferable 
to  any  form  of  alcoholic  stimulants  for  procuring  an 
increase  of  digestive  and  assimilative  power.     So  far  as 
the  writer  is  acquainted  with  the  results  of  comparative 
experience,  they  are  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  hydro- 
pathic treatment,  moderately  and  judiciously  applied, 
especially  in  cases  of  chrcmic  gout  and  rheumati3m ;  but 
he  would  not  be  dogmatic  enough  to  assert,  that  there 
are  not  individual  instances  in  which  (as  in  the  class 
formerly  adverted  to,  f»  194)  the  loug-continued  or  even 
the  habitual  use  of  alcoholic  liquors  will  promote  recovery 
from  chronic  diseases  by  their  influence  on  the  digestive 
and  assimilative  apparatus.    He  does  not  see  the  possi- 
bility, however,  of  laying  down  any  general  rules  by 
which  such  canes  can  be  distinguished ;  and  it  will  be  only 
from  the  results  of  an  extended  experience  of  the  com- 
paiative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  different  modes 
21 


242 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


of  treatment,  and  of  the  immediate  and  remote  conse- 
quences of  the  employment  of  alcoholic  stimulants,  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  abstinent  system,  that  any 
really  valuable  inferences  can  be  drawn.  Until  these 
shall  have  been  obtained,  he  believes  that  abstinence  will 
in  most  cases  be  the  safer  plan ;  except  where  the  pros- 
tration of  the  vital  powers  has  proceeded  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  require  temporary  stimulation  for  the  per- 
formance of  any  of  the  nutritive  and  regenerative  opera- 
tions. , 


229.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark,  in  conclusion, 
that  it  is  through  the  medium  of  the  water  contained  in 
the  animal  body  that  all  its  vital  functions  are  carried 
on.  No  other  liquid  than  water  can  act  as  the  solvent 
for  the  various  articles  of  food  which  are  taken  into  the 
St;  -ach.  It  is  water  alone  which  forms  all  the  fluid 
portion  of  the  blood,  and  thus  serves  to  convey  the  nutri- 
tive material  through  the  minutest  capillary  *  pores  into 
the  substance  of  the  solid  tissues.  It  is  water  which, 
when  mingled  in  various  proportions  with  the  solid  com- 
ponents of  the  various  textures,  gives  to  them  the  con- 
sistence which  they  severally  require.  And  it  is  water 
which  takes  up  the  products  of  their  decay,  and  conveys 
them,  by  a  most  complicated  and  wonderful  system  of 
sewerage,  altogether  out  of  the  system.  It  would  seem 
most  improbable,  then,  that  the  habitual  admixture  of 
any  other  fluid  —  especially  of  one  which,  like  alcohol, 
possesses  so  marked  a  physical,  chemical,  and  vital  in- 
fluence upon  the  other  components  of  the  animal  body  — 


CapiUaiy,  very  minute,  hair  vessels. 


IN  THE  TREATMENT  OP  DISEASE. 


243 


can  be  otherwise  than  injurious  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases ;  and,  where  a  benefit  is  derivable  from  it,  this 
will  depend  upon  the  fact  that  the  abnormal  condition  of 
the  system  renders  some  one  or  more  of  the  special 
actions  of  alcohol  remedial  instead  of  noxious,  so  that 
the  balance  becomes  on  the  whole  in  favor  of  its  use. 


APPENDIX  A,  p.  67. 


Some  very  remarkable  details  regarding  the  condition  of 
the  ballasters  and  coal-whipperft  employed  on  the  Thames, 
have  lately  been  ascertained  by  the  inquiries  of  the  "  Com- 
missioner "  employed  by  the  Morning  Chronicle^  and  have 
been  made  public  in  the  columns  of  that  newspaper.  The 
drinking  habits  of  these  men  have  been  in  part  engen- 
dered by  the  system  under  which  they  have  worked ; 
which  has  involved,  as  the  necessary  condition  of  their 
employment,  the  expenditure  of  a  large  part  of  their  earn- 
ings at  the  public-house.  This  system  was  done  away 
with,  a  few  years  since,  as  regards  the  coal-whippers ;  but 
it  still  remains  in  force  with  respect  to  the  ballasters. 
Several  of  the  former  class  are  now  total  abstainers ;  while 
others,  who  adop'od  the  abstinence  system  for  a  time, 
have  returned  to  their  former  habits.  The  inquiries  of 
Mr.  Mayhew,  the  **  Commissioner,"  were  specially  directed 
to  the  experience  of  both  these  classes ;  and  we  shall  first 
quote  the  statement  of  one  of  the  latter,  by  way  of  show- 
ing the  extreme  severity  of  the  labor  undergone  by  these 
men,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  the  assistance  of 
alcoholic  liquors  is  sought  by  them :  "  I  was  a  strict  tee- 
totaler for  many  years,  and  I  wish  I  could  be  so  now. 
All  that  time  I  was  a  coal-whipper,  at  the  heaviest  work ; 
and  I  have  made  one  of  a  gang  that  has  done  as  much  as 
one  hundred  and  eighty  tons  in  one  day.  I  drank  no  fer- 
21* 


246 


APPENDIX. 


1 1: 


hi 


mented  liquors  the  whole  of  the  time.     I  had  only  ginger- 
beer  and  milk,  and  that  cost  mo  Is.  6d.     It  was  in  the 
summer-time.      I  didn't  ♦buff  it*  that  day;  that  is,  I 
didn't  take   my  shirt   off.     Did  this  work  at  Regent's 
Canal,  and  there  was  a  little  milk-shop  close  on  shore, 
and  I  used  to  run  there  when  I  was  dry.     I  had  about 
two  quarts  of  milk  and  five  bottles  of  ginger-beer,  or  about 
thre''  quarts  of  fluid  altogether.     I  found  that  amount  of 
drink  necessary.     I  perspired  very  violently ;    my  shirt 
was  wet  through,  and  my  flannels  wringing  wet  with  the 
perspi'-ation  over  the  work.     The  rule  among  us  is,  that 
Vi  e  do  twenty-eight  tons  on  deck,  and  twenty-eight  tons 
filing  in  the  ship's  hold.    "We  go  on  in  that  way  through- 
out the  day,  spelling  at  every  twenty  eight  tons.     The 
perspiration  in  the  summer  streams  down  our  foreheads 
so  rapidly,  that  it  will  often  get  into  our  eyes  before  we 
have  time  to  wipe  it  off.     This  makes  the  eyes  very  sore. 
At  night,  when  we  get  home,  we  cannot  bear  to  sit  with  a 
candle.     The  perspiration  is  of  a  very  briny  nature  ;  for  I 
•often  taste  it  as  it  runs  down  my  lips.     We  are  often  so 
heated  over  our  work,  that  the  perspiration  runs  into  the 
-shoes;  and  often,  from  the  dust  and  heat,  jumping  up 
and  down,  and  the  feet  being  galled  with  the  small  dust, 
I  have  had  my  shoes  full  of  blood.     The  thirst  produced 
-by  our  work  is  very  excessive.     It  is  completely  as  if  you 
had  a  fever  upon  you.     The  dust  gets  into  the  throat,  and 
very  nearly  suffocates  you.     Yiu  taa  scrape  the  coal-dust 
K)ff  the  tongue  with  the  teeth  i.  and,  do  whrf.  you  will,  it 
is  impossible  to  get  the  lea.«r-  spittle  into  the  mouth.     I 
have  known  the  coal-dust  to  be  that  thick  in  a  ship's  hold, 
that  I  have  been  unable  to  see  my  mate,  though  he  was 
only  two  feet  from  me.     Your  legs  totter  under  you. 
Both  before  and  after  I  was  a  teetotcler,  I  was  on(  of  the 
strongest  men  in  the  business.     I  was  able  to  carry  seven 


APPENDIX. 


247 


hundred  weight  on  my  back  for  fifty  yards,  and  I  could 
lift  nine  half-hundreds  with  my  right  arm.  After  finish- 
ing my  day's  work,  I  was  like  a  child  with  weakness." 

Tc  the  foregoing  account,  the  following  may  be  added 
from  another  witness  by  way  of  finish  to  the  picture :  — 

"  Then  there's  the  coals  on  your  back  to  be  carried  up 

a  nasty  ladder,  or  some  such  contrivance,  perhaps  twenty 

feet  —  and  a  sack  full  of  coals  weighs  two  cwt.  and  a 

stone  at  least ;  the  sack  itself 's  heavy  and  thick.     Isn't 

that  a  strain  on  a  man  ?     No  horse  could  stand  it  long. 

Then,  when  you  get  fairly  out  of  the  ship,  you  go  along 

planks  to  the  wagon,  and  must  look  sharp,  'specially  in 

slippery  or  wet  weather,  or  you'll  topple  over,  and  there's 

the  hospital  or  workhouse  for  you.     Last  week  we  carried 

along  planks  bixty  feet,  at  least.     There's  nothing  extra 

allowed  for  distance,  but  there  ought  to  be.     I've  sweat 

to  that  degree  in  summer,  that  I've  been  tempted  to  jump 

into  the  Thames  just  to  cool  myself.     The  sweat's  run 

into  my  boots,  and  I've  felt  it  running  down  me  for  hours 

as  I  had  to  trudge  along.     It  makes  men  bleed  at  the 

nose  and  mouth,  this  work  does.     Sometimes  we  put  a 

bit   of   coal   in  our   mouths    to   prevent   us  biting   our 

tongues." 

Now  it  cannot  be  questioned,  that  such  labor  is  greater 
than  any  man  should  be  called  on  to  perform  ;  and  that, 
oven  if  it  should  be  proved  that  assistance  is  derived  in 
it'j  execution  from  the  use  of  alcoholic  liquors,  the  fact 
would  not  be  in  the  least  degree  in  their  favor.  For  we 
might  fairly  anticipate,  that,  under  this  artificial  stimula- 
tion, more  work  being  got  out  of  the  frame  than  it  is 
naturally  capable  of  discharging,  its  powers  would  be  ex- 
hausted at  an  earlier  period  than  that  to  which  they  would 
be  preserved  under  a  system  of  less  excessive  labor,  per- 
formed without  artificial  support.     And  that  such  is  the 


!>,>.»; 


248 


APPBNDIX. 


case  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  fact,  that  sucb  of  these 
men  as  survive  the  attacks  of  acute  disease,  or  are  not  thd 
subjects  of  accident,  become  prematurely  old ;  and  that, 
among  the  whole  class,  there  are  few  who  have  passed 
the  age  of  fifty  years.  The  amount  of  alcoholic  liquor 
habitually  consumed  by  them  may  be  judged  of  from  the 
following  statements  made  to  Mr.  Mayhew  by  two  men 
who  have  remained  firm  to  the  total-abstinence  principle* 
"  Before  I  was  a  teetotaler,  I  principally  drank  ale.  I 
judged  that  the  more  I  gave  for  my  drink,  the  better  it 
was.  Upon  an  average  I  used  to  drink  from  three  to  four 
pints  of  ale  per  day.  I  used  to  drink  a  good  drop  of  gin 
too.  The  coal-porters  are  very  partial  to  dog's-nose  — 
that  is,  half  a  pint  of  ale  with  a  pennyworth  of  gin  in  it ; 
and,  when  they  have  got  the  money,  they  go  up  to  what 
they  term  the  *  lucky-shop '  for  it.  The  coal-porters  take 
this  every  morning  through  the  week,  when  they  can 
afford  it.  After  my  work,  I  used  to  drink  more  than 
when  I  was  at  it.  I  used  to  sit  as  long  as  the  house 
would  let  me  have  any.  Upon  an  average,  I  should  say, 
I  used  to  take  three  or  four  pints  more  of  an  evening ;  so 
that  altogether  I  think  I  may  fairly  say  I  drank  my  foar 
pots  of  ale  regularly  every  day,  and  about  half  a  pint  of 
dog's-nose.  I  reckon  my  drink  used  to  cost  me  13s.  a 
week  when  I  was  in  work.  At  times  I  was  a  noisy, 
drunken  gentleman  then." 

Another  coal-porter,  who  has  been  a  teetotaler  ten 
years  on  the  25th  of  last  August,  told  Mr.  M.  that  before 
he  took  the  pledge  he  used  to  drink  a  great  deal  after  he 
had  done  his  work,  but  while  he  was  at  his  work  he  could 
not  stand  it.  '*  I  don't  think  I  used  to  drink  more  than 
three  pints  and  a  half  and  a  pennyworth  of  gin  in  the  day- 
time," said  this  man.  "  Of  an  evening,  I  used  to  stop  at 
the  public^honse  generally  till  I  was  drunk,  and  Unfit  to 


111 


APPENDIX. 


249 


work  in  the  morning.  I  will  vouch  for  it,  I  used  to  take 
about  three  pots  a  day  after  I  had  done  work.  My  reck- 
oning used  to  come  to  about  Is.  8d.  per  day,  or,  including 
Sundays,  about  10s.  6d.  per  week.  At  that  time  I  could 
average  all  the  year  round  30s.  a  week,  and  I  used  to 
drink  away  ten  of  it  regularly  !  I  did  indeed,  sir,  more 
to  my  shame.*' 

It  seems  a  legitimate  inference,  from  the  early  decay  of 
the  physical  powers  of  these  men,  that  no  real  support  is 
given  them  by  alcoholic  liquors,  in  the  performance  of  their 
arduous  labor ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  point  in  the  state- 
ments just  quoted,  that  both  agree  in  the  assertion  that 
the  principal  part  of  the  liquor  consumed  is  taken  in  the 
evening,  after  the  day'«  toil  is  over,  as  they  '*  could  not 
stand  it "  whilst  at  work.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  amount 
which  can  be  effectively  employed  as  a  stimulus  to  nervo- 
xnuscular  exertion  is  really  small ;  and  it  is  further  evident 
that  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  proof  that  any  thing  is 
in  the  end  gained  by  their  use ;  a  conclusion  which  is  in 
perfect  harmony  with  the  statements  made  in  the  Essay 
(§§  S^ — 102),  as  to  the  incapacity  of  alcoholic  liquors  for 
maintaining  the  physical  powers  of  the  human  system. 

That  some  of  tiiose  who  have  tried  the  total-absti- 
nence system  have  gone  back  to  their  former  habits,  from 
a  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  support,  is  capable  of  being 
accounted  for,  not  merely  by  the  excessive  amount  of  labor 
they  are  called  on  to  perform,  but  also  by  the  want  of  ade- 
quate sustenance  from  solid  food.  A  due  allowance  of 
this  is  unquestionably  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
strength ;  and  it  appears  from  the  testimony  of  other  indi- 
viduals similarly  employed  (given  in  the  next  Appendix), 
thai,  where  this  course  has  been  followed,  the  labor  has 
been  performed  with  more  ease,  and  that  the  power  of 
endurance  has  been  increased. 


260 


APPENDIX  B,  p.  102. 


I 


The   recent   inquiries   of  the   "  Commissioner"   of  the 
Morning   Chronicle  not   only  reveal   the   circumstances 
under  which  a  vast  amount  of  excessive  drinking  takes 
place  among  men  engaged  in  laborious  employments,  but 
also  confirm  all  that  is  stated  in  the  text  as  to  the  possi- 
bility of  performing  the  severest  labor  without  such  assist- 
ance, provided  due  support  be  obtained  from  solid  food. 
The  follov.'ing  is  the  statement  made  to  Mr.  Mayhew  by  a 
coal-whipper,  who  had  been  a  teetotaler  of  eight  years' 
standing :    "  It's  food   only  that   can  give  real  strength 
to  the  frame.     I  have  iune  more  work  since  I  have  been 
a  teetotaler  in  my  eigbc  years,  than  I  did  in  ten  or  twelve 
years  before.     I  have  felt  stronger.     I  don't  say  that  I  do 
my  work  better ;  but  this  I  will  say,  without  fear  of  suc- 
cessful contradiction,  that  I  do  my  work  with  more  ease  to 
myself,  and  with  more  satisfaction  to  my  employer,  since 
I  have  given  over  intoxicating  drinks.     I  scaiv.^.!/  know 
what  thiist  is.     Before  I  took  the  pledge,  I  was  always 
dry ;    and  the  more  shadow  of   the  pot-boy  was  quite 
sufficient  to  convince  me  that  I  wanted  something.    I  cer- 
tainly havn't  felt  weaker  since  I  have  left  off  malt-liquor. 
I  have  eaten  more  and  drank  less.     I  live  as  well  now  as 
any  of  the  publicans  do  ;  and  who  has  a  better  right  to 
do  so  than  the  man  who  works  ?     I  have  backed  as  many 
as  sixty  tons  in  a  day  since  I  took  the  pledge,  and  have 
done  it  without  any  intoxicating  drink  with  perfect  ease  to 
myself,  and  walked  five  miles  to  a  temperance  .meeting 
afterwards.     But,  before  I  became  a  teetotaler,  after  the 


APPENDIX. 


251 


of  the 
stances 
;  takes 
Its,  but 
i  possi- 
1  assist- 
id  food, 
ew  by  a 
t  years' 
strength 
ire  been 
twelve 
lat  I  do 
of  suc- 
ease  to 
',  since 
■  know 
always 
I  quite 
I  cer- 
•liquor. 
now  as 
ight  to 
s  many 
d  have 
ease  to 
eeting 
tor  the 


same  amount  of  work  I  should  scarcely  have  been  able  to 
crawl  home.     I  should  have  been  certain  to  have  lost  the 
next  day's  work  at  least;  but  now  I  can  back  that  quan- 
tity of  coals  week  after  week  without  losing  a  day.      I've 
got  a  family  of  six  children  under  twelve  years  rC     ^e. 
My  wife  's  a  tectoaler,  and  has  suckled  four  childr(      ipon 
the  principle  of  total  abstinence.     Teetotalism  ha        ide 
my  home  quite  happy,  aiid  what  I  get  goes  twice 
Where  I  work  now,  four  of  us  out  of  five  are  teetotalers. 
I  am  quite  satisfied  that  the  heaviest  work  that  a  man  can 
possibly  do  may  be  done  without  a  drop  of  fermented 
liquor.     I  say  so  from  my  own  experience.     All  kinds  of 
intoxicating  drinks  is  quite  a  delusion.     We  teetotalers 
can  do  the  work  better,  that  is,  with  more  ease  to  our- 
selves, than   the   drinkers   can.     Many  teetotalers  have 
backed  coals  out  of  the  hold,  and  I  have  heard  them  say 
over  and  over  again  that  they  did  their  work  with  more 
comfort  and  ease  than  they  did  when  they  drank  intoxi- 
cating drink.     Coal-backing  from  the  ship's  hold  is  the 
hardest  work  that  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to  do.     Going 
up  a  ladder  sixteen  feet  high,  with  238  lbs.  weight  upon  a 
man's  back,  is  sufficient  to  kill  any  one ;  indeed,  it  does 
kill  the  men  in  a  few  years  —  they're  soon  old  men  at 
that  work." 

It  appears  from  the  statement  of  this  man,  —  1st,  That 
he  could  do  more  work  in  the  time,  on  the  total-abstinence 
system,  than  on  his  previous  system  ;  2d,  That  he  could 
do  it  with  more  ease  and  comfort  to  himself ;  3d,  That  at 
the  end  of  his  day's  labor  he  was  not  too  much  fatigued 
to  prevent  hira  from  voluntarily  walking  five  miles  to  a 
temperance  meeting ;  whilst  (like  the  first  witness  cited 
in  the  preceding  Appendix,  who  spoke  of  himself  as  "  like 
a  child  with  weakness  "  when  his  toil  was  over)  he  was 
previously  scarce  able  to  crawl  home. 


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WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

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7 


252 


APPENDIX  C,  p.  220. 


On  the  Effect  of  Water-drinking  in  the  Owe  of  Gout, 
Ey  John  Bostock,  M.D.,  FJR.B.  •^Cotnmunleated  to 
the  Medico- Chirurgical  Society. 


«i 


The  case  to  -which  I  propose  to  direct  the  attention  of 
the  Society  is  that  of  a  gentleman  seventy  years  of  age, 
■who  had  been,  from  a  very  early  period  of  his  life,  subject 
to  very  frequent  attacks  of  gout,  the  predisposition  to 
which  complaint  is  inherited  from  his  parents.    Connected 
with  this,  he  has  been  a  constant  sufferer  from  stomach- 
affections  of  various  kinds ;   acidity,  flatulence,  heart- 
bum,  irregularity  of  the  bowels,  and,  in  short,  from  every 
one  of  the  affections  which  are  enumerated  in  CuUen's 
well-known  definition  of  dyspepsia.    His  mode  of  life  was 
regular  and  moderately  active ;  and  his  diet,  what  might 
be  styled  temperate,  although  not  abstemious.    He  had, 
indeed,  been  advised  by  his  medical  friends  to  take  wine 
in  moderate  quantity ;  he  had  occasionally  employed  ale, 
porter,  and  brandy-and-water,  but  never  in  what  could  be 
considered  an  excessive  quantity.    In  this  way  he  had 
passed  about  forty  years,  seldom  actually  confined  by 
indisposition,  but  almost  always  subject  to  a  Sttcceseion 
of  ailments,  which  rendered  it  necessary  to  have  recourse 
to  medicines  of  various  kinds,  and,  more  especially,  to 
alkalies,  which  were  taken  in  large  quantity,  and,  as  the 
symptoms  appeared  to  indicate,  to  purgatives' or  to  seda- 


APPENDIX. 


253 


tives,  and  to  a  variety  of  tonics  and  stimulants.  During 
this  period,  the  renal  secretion  was  seldom  in  what  could 
he  considered  a  perfectly  healthy  state  ;  it  was  sometimes 
loaded  with  deposits,  and  of  high  specific  gravity ;  some- 
times of  low  specific  gravity,  limpid  and  aqueous ; 
sometimes  very  copious,  at  other  times  scanty ;  while  itf« 
chemical  constitution  was  most  variable  both  as  to  the 
nature  and  the  proportion  of  its  saline  contents. 

'*  About  four  years  ago,  in  consequence  of  the  accession 
of  certain  alarming  symptoms  of  a  new  description,  which 
were  supposed  to  require  the  antiphlogistic  treatment, 
the  patient  was  ordered  by  his  medical  attendants  to 
reduce  his  system  of  diet,  and  more  especially  to  abstain 
entirely  from  fermented  liquor  or  distilled  spirits  of  any 
description.  By  this  restriction,  and  by  other  appropriate 
remedies,  the  threatened  disease  was  averted.  And,  be- 
sides this  fortunate  result,  the  patient  found  his  general 
state  of  health  and  feelings  so  much  improved  by  the 
change  of  diet,  that  the  abstinence  from  all  kinds  of 
liquors  has  been  strictly  adhered  to  up  to  the  present 
period.  The  effect  has  been,  that  he  has  lost  all  the  dys- 
peptic symptoms  to  which  he  had  been  subject  for  upwards 
of  forty  years  ;  and,  what  I  am  more  particularly  desirous 
of  pointing  out  to  the  society,  the  renal  secretion  has  been 
now,  for  a  long  period,  in  a  perfectly  natural  state :  it  is 
nearly  uniform  in  its  specific  gravity,  and  is  totally  free 
from  all  the  morbid  deposits  which  were  before  seldom 
absent  from  it.  And  there  is  a  circumstance  connected 
with  it,  which  I  conceive  to  be  particularly  deserving  of 
attention ;  that,  although  of  an  average  specific  gravity, 
and  containing  the  proper  proportion  of  urea  and  saline 
ingredients,  it  is  uniformly  increased  in  quantity,  so  that 
there  has  been  now,  for  several  months,  considerably  more 
of  these  substances  discharged  from  the  system  than  was 
22 


254 


APPEKDIX. 


formerly  the  case.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the 
abstraction  of  alcohol  has  produced  a  more  healthy  state 
of  the  digestive  and  secreting  functions ;  so  that  the  func- 
tions of  the  kidney  are  more  actively  and  effectively 
performed."  —  Medical  Gazette,  Feb.  23,  1844. 

To  this  interesting  case,  which  is  understood  to  be  that 
of  Dr.  Bostock  himself,  may  be  added  the  following,  from 
the  Bristol  Temperance  Herald :  — 

"  Rebecca  Griffiths,  the  individual  referred  to,  resided 
in  this  city  (Bristol)  the  larger  portion  of  her  long  life, 
and  until  her  eighty-ninth  year  had  daily  taken  as  a 
beverage  some  kind  of  intoxicating  drink.  Beer,  and 
occasionally  gin  and  water,  had  been  commonly  used ; 
but,  for  a  few  years  before  practising  total  abstinence,  she 
took  daily  a  small  portion  of  the  best  Madeira  wine; 
having,  perhaps,  both  as  regarded  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  liquor,  every  advantage  that  any  one  could  possess 
in  using  a  stimulating  drink.  This  practice  she  relin- 
quished all  at  once  in  the  eighty-ninth  year  of  her  age. 
For  a  time,  it  was  feared  her  health  would  suffer ;  but  it 
was  soon  manifest  that  those  fears  were  groundless :  her 
appetite  improved  with  the  change  of  diet,  and  occasional 
interruptions  by  a  disordered  stomach  were  much  less  fre- 
quent ;  she  would  at  times  observe  that  she  could  eat, 
drink,  and  sleep,  as  well  as  at  almost  any  period  of  her 
life ;  nor  did  her  spirits  appen*  to  suffer  even  temporarily. 
For  nearly  fifteen  years,  she  been  tried  with  a  sore  in 
one  of  her  legs,  which  was  troublesome,  and  at  times 
appeared  to  be  dangerous ;  after  practising  teetotalism  for 
about  a  year  and  a  half,  this  sore  began  to  diminish,  and 
was  soon  perfectly  healed.  At  the  expiration  of  two 
years,  she  had  a  rather  violent  attack  of  influenza,  which 
brought  her  so  low  that  her  medical  attendant  recom- 


APPENDIX. 


255 


mended  wine,  to  which  she  had  recourse  for  about  six 
months,  when  the  wound  in  her  leg  again  opened^  and 
became  troublesome :  the  wine  was,  consequently,  discon- 
tinued, and,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  the  sore 
again  healed  up!  Her  health  also  improved  yet  more 
decidedly  than  after  her  first  trial  of  total  abstinence ;  and 
she  continued,  until  within  a  few  days  of  her  decease 
(which  took  place  in  the  spring  of  1843),  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  excellent  health  and  spirits,  and  the  full  posses- 
sion of  nearly  all  her  faculties,  although  ninety-three 
years  old." 


THB 


USE   OF  ALCOHOL 


POE  THE  PREPARATION   OF  MEDICINES, 


BY    THE   EDITOB. 


In  i^  nmnber  of  the  States  in  this  country,  laws  have  been 
passed  prohibiting  the  sale  of  alcohol,  except  for  medicine 
^nd  the  arts.  In  these  States  the  apothecaries  have  be- 
come its  only  regular  venders,  and  some  of  them  have 
availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  to 
retail  it  to  the  tippler.  This  practice  partially  defeats  the 
operation  of  the  law,  and  thus  threatens  to  be  a  public 
nuisance.  The  question  has  naturally  arisen.  Whether 
alcohol  is  a  necessary  article  of  the  Materia  Medica ;  and, 
if  80,  to  what  extent  ?  Whether,  for  example,  it  is  not 
employed  in  many  cases  where  other  articles  might  be 
substituted  with  propriety,  and  even  with  advantage  ? 

The  principal  uses  for  which  alcohol  is  employed  in 
medicine  are,  Jtrst^  As  a  Stimulant ;  second^  As  a  Men- 
struum ;  thirds  As  an  Antiseptic. 

As  a  stimulant,  it  is  not  so  necessary  as  might  at  first 
view  appear.  When  it  is  employed,  for  example,  to 
revive  a  person  who  is  much  exhausted,  the  distilled  aro- 
matic herbs,  or  a  mixture  of  the  essential  oils,  would 
answer.  Peppermint-water,  and  the  other  aromatic 
waters,  by  increasing  the  proportion  of  the  essential  o\\m, 
22* 


268 


USB  OF  ALCOHOL 


/ 


mty  be  mado  as  strong  a  stimulant  as  can  be  swallowed 
without  excoriating  the  throat.  These  may  often,  there- 
fore, be  very  properly  substituted  for  brandy.  For  some 
other  cases,  the  preparations  of  ammonia  are  more  proper. 
Their  action  is  more  rapid ;  they  possess  greater  stimulant 
powers ;  and  the  quantity  required  is  therefore  less. 

Second,  as  a  menstruum,  alcohol  is  employed  for  ex- 
tracting the  virtues  of  medicinal  plants,  and  dissolving 
medidnul  resins.  The  substance,  being  infused  in  alcohol 
A  certain  time,  imparts  its  properties,  or  a  portion  of  them, 
to  the  liquid ;  which  is  then  administered,  sometimes  in  a 
pure  state,  and  sometimes  diluted  with  water.  Many 
people  are  not  aware,  that,  when  they  take  a  glass  of 
elixir  proprietatis  or  of  tincture  of  rhubarb,  they  swallow 
two  ounces  of  strong  rum.  Yet  delicate  females,  and 
even  children,  are  made  to  take  these  daily,  and  thus 
become  habituated  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  stimulants. 
The  danger  arising  from  such  practices  in  some  inflamma- 
tory complaints  must  bo  very  great. 

The  medicinal  resins  for  which  alcohol  is  used  as  a  sol- 
vent are  aloes,  myrrh,  guaiacum,  dec.  The  tincture  formed 
by  the  combination  of  alcohol  and  the  first  two  of  these  is 
the  famous  "  Elixir  Pro."  which,  in  former  times,  every 
good  mother  thought  herself  obliged  to  prepare  and  keep 
for  the  benefit  of  her  young  family.  Many  an  unconscious 
mother  has  brought  on  symptoms  of  violent  fever  by 
intoxicating  her  offspring  with  these  insidious  articles. 
Now,  for  these  there  are  substitutes,  which  may  be 
employed  in  the  greater  number  of  instances.  An  infu- 
•ion  of  rhubarb  in  water,  with  some  aromatic,  is  a  better 
medicine  than  the  alcoholic  preparation  in  three  cases  out 
of  fourt  Aloes  may  be  used  as  an  extract  in  pills,  and 
may  be  employed  in  the  simpler  state  of  powder,  and  even 
in  decoction ;  so  that  there  are,  in  fact,  very  few,  if  any, 


FOR  THE  PREPARATION   OF  MEDICINES. 


259 


cases  where  the  spirituous  preparation  is  required.     It  is 
a  common  opinion,  indeed,  that  tincture  of  aloes  and 
myrrh,  or  elixir  proprietatis,  is  an  excellent  remedy  for 
colic.    If  it  be  used  in  a  colic  from  indigestion,  the  astrin- 
gent property  of  the   alcohol  may,  by  contracting   the 
stomach   on   undigested   food,   increase    the  pain  ;    and 
the  same  is  true  of  brandy,  gin,  and  other  forms  of  alco- 
hol.    If,  again,  it  be  used  for  w'nd-colic,  or  pain  from 
flatulence,  drinks  actually  hot,  as  hot  peppermint- water, 
or  even  simple  hot  water,  are  preferable.     Tincture  of 
cinchona,  or  "  tincture  of  bark,"  as  it  was  formerly  called, 
contains  less  tonic  power*  than  may  be  found  in  the  pre- 
parations of  quinine ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  most 
of  the  bitter  tinctures,  as  calumba  and  cascarilla.     Tinc- 
ture of  red  lavender  poured  upon  loaf-sugar  has  been  a 
favorite  cordial  with  young  ladies  who  wish   to    fortify 
their  stomachs  against  any  particular  emergency,  and  it  is 
notorious  that  this  indulgence  has  been  a  very  frequent 
origin  of  tippling.     If,  instead  of  taking  lavender  to  re- 
lieve the  stomach,  they  omitted  the  use  of  sugar-plums 
and  bon  hons,  they  might  experience  neither  the  disposi- 
tion for,  nor  the  ill  consequences  arising  from,  alcoholic 
articles.     Stoughton's  elixir,  which  is  the  same  ac  ;l.o 
tincture  of  gentian,  was  regularly  introduced  into  the  draw- 
ing-room during  the  last  generation  to  give  keenness  to 
the  appetite  for  an  approaching  feast.     But  at  last  it  was 
discovered,  that,  by  overstimulating  the  empty  and  unpro- 
tected organ,  and  producing  a  sense  of  satiety  before  any 
food  was  taken,  instead  of  quickening  the  appetite  or 
aiding  the  digestion,  it  blunted  the  one  and  enfeebled 
the  other.      Our  epicures,  having  sagaciously  observed 
these  disagreeable  effects,  have  proposed  to  tickle  and 
awaken  the  stomach  by  the  introduction  of  a  large  cold 
oyster  or  two.     The  best  substitute  for  both  of  these  will 


260 


US£  OF  ALCOHOIi 


/ 


be  found  in  half  a  glass  of  water,  fresh  as  it  comes  from 
the  spring,  and  not  spoiled  by  ice.  The  cases  above 
mentioned  will  perhaps  be  thought  sufficient  to  show  how 
easy  it  often  is  to  find  substitutes  for  alcoholic  medicines. 

There  is  a  class  of  preparations,  revealed  by  science, 
which  promises  great  advantages  as  a  substitute  for  the 
tinctures.  In  the  number  of  the  **  Boston  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal"  for  September  5,  1849,  will  be  found 
an  account  of  a  mode  of  producing  a  fermentation,  by 
which  is  generated  a  substance  containing  the  properties 
of  medicinal  articles  in  a  convenient  state  for  administra- 
tion and  preservation.  By  adding  to  an  infusion  of  senna 
a  due  proportion  of  sugar,  a  fermentation  is  generated 
which  produces  a  vinous  fluid,  so  weak  as  not  to  possess 
any  important  stimulant  properties,  and  yet  strong  enough 
to  prevent  decomposition.  This  preparation  we  have  tried, 
and  find  elegant,  convenient,  and  safe.  It  cannot  be  used 
for  the  purposes  of  intoxication,  on  account  of  its  weak- 
ness and  medicinal  effect.  Various  preparations  —  as,  for 
example,  aloes,  opium,  gentian,  rhubarb,  and  many  others 
most  necessary  in  medical  practice  —  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way.  Perhaps  it  will  be  thought  that  they  are  no 
better  than  tinctures  ;  but,  in  fact,  they  have  not  the 
strength  of  tinctures.  No  extraneous  alcohol  is  intro- 
duced. We  recommend  to  the  enterprising  apothecary 
the  preparation  of  these  products  of  fermentation  as  pro- 
mising much  advantage  to  the  medical  practitioner,  and 
a  valuable  improvement  in  economy  to  the  apothecary 
himself. 

A  third  use  of  alcohol  is  to  prevent  decomposition. 
For  this  purpose  it  is  added  to  some  infusions,  decoctions, 
and  syrups.  The  two  former  of  these  should  always  be 
prepared  recently  and  without  alcohol;  and  the  last,  if 
properly  made,  do  not  require  it. 


'.  r, 


FOR  THB  PREPARATION  OF  MEDICINES. 


261 


Physicians  have  been  among  the  most  forward,  perse- 
vering, and  able  advocates  of  temperance.  Without  their 
aid,  the  temperance  reformation  could  never  have  pro- 
ceeded as  far  as  it  has.  But  it  appears  there  is  an  evil 
existing  under  their  eyes,  and,  in  a  measure,  maintained 
by  their  prescriptions,  which  has  become  formidable  to  the 
public  morals.  If  they  would  take  the  matter  into  con- 
sideration, and  satisfy  their  own  minds  when  alcoholic 
preparations  are  really  required,  their  prescriptions  would 
undoubtedly  be  much  more  restricted  than  they  now  are 
in  the  employment  of  the  tinctures.  The  facts  so  briefly 
stated  above  will  probably  be  sufficient  to  convince  them, 
that  they  might,  with  a  very  little  sacrifice  of  convenience, 
employ  substitutes  more  beneficial  to  the  patient,  and  less 
objectionable  on  the  ground  of  temperance ;  and  they 
would  have  the  satisfaction  of  believing,  that  they  have 
removed  from  the  reach  of  their  patients  an  article  which 
might,  by  slow  and  insidious  steps,  have  ultimately  led  to 
their  ruin. 


Note.  -^  Some  of  the  Pharmaeopceias  direct  that  spirit  should 
be  added  to  infusions  to  prevent  decomposition,  when  they  are  to 
be  kept  any  length  of  time.  This  may  be  accomplished  without 
alcohol,  by  placing  the  infusion,  while  hot,  in  a  closely  stopped 
bottle,  and  keeping  it  in  a  cool  place. 


262 


MEDICAL  CERTIHCATE. 


Thtt  4fMMM(,  ifwkieh  a  copy  u  given  at  page  xxiii.  has  already  bten  mbierUii  ty 
MlMiut  flOOO  MeUieul  PractUwMers,  among  toAum  are  the  fultvwing  i  — 


A4»mii,  M«%.  Maxwell,  M.n.  ProfeMor, 

A4(llM»n,  T.  M.o.  Senior  PliyRiriBn  to 

Uuf*t  HiMiplliil 
AM^Htn,  Win.  m.d.  r.ii.i.  k,c.  London 
AtkmMn,  dou   burgeon,  Ea«t  Linton, 

Ilii4din||l4in)«hlr« 
AllMtN,  W.  P.  M.D.  ProfeiMr  of  the 

frtMUlcn  of  Pliyitic  and  Clinical  Me- 

iieim  in  the  Unlvenily  of  Edin- 
burgh, ind  Phyiicinn  to  the  auoen 
AlMl«r»on,  Ales.  Burgeon,   Tranent, 

llMidingtonnliIre 
Amslt,  i.  MoncrlefT,  r.ii.i.  Vice-Presi- 

4«Ht  of  the  Riiynl  College  of  Sur- 

|«Mii  of  England,  Ilc.  'x. 
Arnott,  Neil,    m.d.    r.n.:   Physician 

£«('.  to  the  Queen )  Author  of  "  £le- 

in«Ht«  of  Pliyitlc)),"  Ijondun 
Bftlilngton,  Dun.  Guy,  m.d.  r.iki.  Pby- 

•i«lNfl  to  Guy's  Hospital 
illy,  WllllHtn,  M.D.  r.  R.».  Physician  to 

th«  Mill-lmnk  Prison,  London 
BftrtMr,  iohn,  M.n.o.s.    Aldborough, 

iilfliflk 
PmUIo,  Wlllliim.  M.D.  Edinburgh  and 

Londott,  Pliyslcian  Extraordinary  to 

hiu  iMto  Mnjesty  William  IV.  &c.  &c. 

liONdon 
DtwutHOfit,  Thos.  Surgeon,  Bradford, 

Yorkshire 
B«ll,  L'liM.  W.  M.D.  Physician  to  the 

Mflnehester  Hoynl  Inflrmnry 
Billlflg,  A.  M.o  r.R.s.  late  Senior  Phy- 

Mieintt  to  the  London  Hospital 
Bo«(o«k,  John,  m.d.  r.H.s. 
Bowiimti,  W,  r.R.a.  Professor  of  Phy- 

«k*iogy  In  King's  (College,  London 
Bright,  ttiehard,  m.d.  r.a.s.  Physician 

£«lr.  to  the  Queen,  Consulting  Phy- 

•tolUtt  to  Ouy's  Hospital 


Brodie,  Sir  Ren.  C.  Bart  r.a.s.  Ser- 
geant-Surgeon to  the  Queen 

Buchanan,  M.  S.  m.d.  Professor  of 
Anatomy  in  the  Andersonian  Uni- 
versity, Glasgow 

Budd,0.  M.D.  r.R.i.  Physician  to  King's 
College  Hospital,  London 

Burn,  J.  M.D.  Edinburgh 

Burnett,  Sir  W.  m.u.  r.>.t.  Phyitetan- 
General  to  the  Navy,  itc.  &c 

Burrows,  Geo.  m  d  p.r.i.  Physician  t* 
St.  Uartholumew's  Hospital 

Carmichael  R.  r.R.t.  M.a.i.*.  Dublin 

Carpenter,  W.  B.  m.d.  r.a.s.  &e.  ttt. 
London 

Chalmers,  Wm.  m  d.  late  Physician  to 
the  Royal  Infirmary  of  Glaagow, 
Croydon,  Surrey 

Chambers,  Wni.  F.  m.d.  f.r.s.  Phyal- 
cian  to  the  Queen  and  to  the  Queen 
Dowager 

Clark,  Sir  James,  Bnrt.  m.o.  F.R.i.  Phy- 
sician in  Ordinary  to  the  Queen  and 
his  Royal  Highness  Prince  Albert 

riay,  Chas.  m.d.  Editor  of  the  •'  Bri- 
tish Record  of  Obstetric  Medicine  '* 

Clanny,Wm-  R.  m.d.  f.r.i.  Edinburgh, 
Consulting  Physiciun  to  the  Sunder- 
land Inflrmnry 

Cluley,  Wm.  h.r.c.s.  Ashton-under- 
Lyne,  Lancashire 

Collenette,  B.  m.r.u.8.  Guernsey 

Collet,  H.  J.  M.R.c.s.  Worthing,  Sussex 

Combe,  And.  m.d.  Physician  in  Ordi- 
nary to  the  Queen  for  Scotland 

Cooke,  Wm.  m.d.  h.r.c.8.  tec.  London 

Copland,  James,  m  d.  f.r  §.  Author  of 
"  Dictionary  of  Practical  Medicine  " 

Couper,  John,  m.d.  Professor  of  Mat»- 
ria  Medica  in  the  University  of  Glaa- 
gow 


MEDICAL  CERTIFIOATB. 


268 


Courtney,  A.  m.r.o.i.  late  Surgeon, 
R.N.  RnmKgale 

Cnimptun,  Sir  Philip,  Rort.  m.d.  r.iut. 
Burgeon-Uunural  lu  the  FurccH,  Ire- 
land 

Crl«p,  Edwards,  m.d.  m.iuc.*.  London 

Crlap,  Fred.  A.  n.ii.ct.  Walwortb, 
Surrey 

Currle,  Claud,  Surg.-Oeneral,  Madraii 

Daviei,  J.  B.  m.d.  Senior  Physician  to 
Queen's  ilogpital,  UirininKham 

Duncan,  Robt.  m.d.  m.k.c.i.  Tunbridgo 
Well* 

Ed!!n,  T.  M.n.c.a.  Liverpool 

Eyre,  Sir  Jaa.  m.d.  h.r.c.i.  I^ndon 

Farre,  Arthur,  m.o.  r.iut.  Profu88ur  of 
Midwifery  in  Kiiig'd  College,  I<ond. 

Ferguson,  Robert,  m.d.  Physician-Ac- 
coucheur to  the  Queen,  London 

Fergusson,  W.  r.a.i.  r.n.c.t.  Surgeon 
to  King's  College  Hospital,  Ijondon 

Ferrier,  J.  C.  m  d.  Member  of  the 
Council  of  "The  Provincial  Medi- 
cal and  Surgical  Association,"  late 
Physician  to  the  Worthing  Dispen- 
sary, Brixton,  Surrey. 

Fife,  Sir  John,  r.a.c*.  Surgeon  to  the 
Infirmary,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne 

Forbes,  John,  m.d.  r.a.s.  Physician  in 
Ordinary  tu  her  MnjcHty'it  liou!<KhnlJ 

Fothergill,  John,  m.b.c.s.  Darlington, 
Durham 

Gay,  J.  r.R.c.t.  Surgeon  to  the  Royal 
Free  Hospital,  London 

Gavcd,  Arthur,  M.R.c.i.  St.  Mabyn, 
Cornwall 

Grainger,  R.  D.  r.ius.  Member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons of  England 

Grant,  George,  m.d.  Richmond  Hill, 
Surrey 

Gray,  Wm.  A.  m.d.  Edinburgh 

Gregory,  Geo.  m.d.  f.r.c.p.  Physician 
to  the  Small  Pox  and  Vaccination 
Hospitals,  London 

Grind  rod,  R.  B.  ix.d.  Author  of  "  Bac- 
chus " 

Guy,  W.  Augustus,  f.iuc.p.  Physician 
to  King's  College  Hospital,  London 


Hnll,  Marshall,  m.o.  r.a.f.  he.  k,c.  Lon- 
don 

Harvey,  Joshua,  m.d.  Physician  to  the 
Retreat  for  ptTKonn  nfltittcd  with  dis- 
orders  of  the  Mind,  Oublin 

llawkini*,  Cn^or  H.  r.s.ci.  Surgeon  to 
St.  George's  Hospital,  I<ondon 

Hawkins,  Francis,  m.d.  r.a.cr.  Physi- 
cian to  the  MiddleM-x  Hospital 

Hawkins,  Jnmcs,  m.r  c  u.  London 

Henderson,  Willlntn,  m.i>.  Professor  of 
General  Pittliology  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh 

Ilick.'t,  U.  SuriS'f'n,  London 

lligginbottom,  John,  f.r.c.i.  Author  of 
"  Alcohol  as  a  Medicine,"  he  Not- 
tingham 

HilU,  Geo.  M.n.o.s.  Arundel,  Sussei 

Hingriton,  Andrew,  M.a.e.s.  Llskeard, 
Cornwall 

Hinffston,  Richard,  Surgeon,  Cornwall 

Hofmunn,  A.  VV.  ProfcHHur  to  the  Royal 
College  of  t'h'Mnistry,  London 

Holland,  G.  C.  m.d.  Physician  Extr.  to 
tlie  Sheffield  General  Infirmary 

Holland,  Henry,  m.d.  p.R.t.  Physician 
Extraordinary  to  the  Queen  ;  Author 
of"  Medical  Notes  and  Reflections" 

Hue,  C.  M.D.  r.ii.c.p.  Senior  Physician 
tu  St.  nartiiultiiiii  w'd  IIo:ipital 

Hume,  Joiseph,  m.d.  and  M.r. 

Hunter,  Robert,  M.D.  F.a.c.p.  Cdin.  and 
Lecturer  on  Anatomy,  Glasgow 

Jeffreys,  Julius,  f.h.s.  f.o.s.  he.  he 
London 

Judd,  W.  H.  F.R.C.B.  Surgeon  in  Ordi- 
nary to  II.  R.  II.  Prince  Albert 

Key,  C.  Aston,  f.r.s.  Senior  Surgeon 
to  Guy'ii  Hoi^pital 

Kiernnn,  Fran.  F,R.a.  f.r  c.s.  he.  he, 
London 

Kirk,  James  R.  m  o.  Glasgow 

Latliam,  P.  M.  m.d.  Physician  Extraor- 
dinary to  the  Queen,  late  Physician 
to  St.  Uartholomcw'ii  Hospital 

Lnurie,  James  A.  m.d.  Surgeon  to  the 
Glasgow  Royal  Infirmary 

Little,  W.  J.  M.D.  Physician  to  the 
London  Hospital 


264 


MEDICAL  CBBTIFICATB. 


/ 


Lonsdale,  H.  k.d.  r.iuo.r.  Edinburgh, 
Physician  to  the  Cumlwrland  Infir- 
mary, Carliala 

MKSregor,  Sir  James,  Bait  if.o.  r.B.i. 
Director-General  of  the  Army  Medi- 
cal Department 

H'Kenzie,  Wm.  m.d.  Surgeon-Octtlist 
to  her  M^iJeflty,  Glasgow 

Mantel!,  G.  A.  uuo.  r.a.i.  r.ii.o.t.  Lon- 
don 

Marsh,  Sir  H.  Bart  if.D.  Physician  to 
the  Queen,  Dublin 

Moore,  G.  if.D.  Author  of  "  Man  and 
his  Motives,"  &c  Tunbridge  Wells 

Mudge,  H.  if.K.c.1.  Burgeon  to  the  Hos- 
pital and  Dispensary,  Boduiin,  Corn- 
wall 

Munro,  Sir  Alex.  ii.d.  late  Professor  of 
Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Edin. 

Newth,  Geo.  Elisha,  m  R.c.f.  Edin- 
burgh, Assistant-Accoucheur  to  St 
Thomas's  Hospital,  London 

Oxley,  W.  1I.D.  Hackney,  Middlesex 

Paris,  J.  A.  h.d.  f.r.s.  President  of  the 
Boyal  College  of  Physicians,  Lond. 

Percy,  John,  if.o.  f.r.s.  Professor  of 
Chemistry,  Queen's  College,  Bir- 
mingham 

Pereira,  Jonathan,  ii.d.  r.>.s.  Assistant- 
Physician  to  the  Lond.  Hospital,  &c. 

Peny,  Uobt  m.d.  Physician  to  the  Glas- 
gow Eoyal  Infirmary 

Pettigrew,  1'.  J.  f.b.i.  r.iuc.s.  &c.  &c. 
London 

Prout,  Wm.  if.D.  r.B.s.  Author  of  *'  Sto- 
mach and  Renal  Diseases,"  &c. 

Reid,  John,  m.d.  Professor  of  Anatomy 
in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews 

Roget,  P.  M.  M.D.  r.ius.  London 

Roupell,  G.  L.  M.D.  F.B.S.  Physician  to 
St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital 

Eoyle,  J.  F.  m.d.  f.r.s.  Prof,  of  Materia 
Medica  in  King's  College,  London 

Sladen,  Ramsay,  Phys.-Gen.  Madras 

Sleman,  R.  m.iuc.s.  Tavistock,  Devon 

Smith,  A.  M.D.  Deputy-Inspector  of 
Army  Hospitals 

Snow,  John,  m.o.  Vice-President  of  the 
Westminster  Medical  Society,  Lond. 


Syme,  J.  m.d.  Professor  of  Clinical 
Surgery  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  Surgeon  to  thejQueea 
for  Scotland 

Tatum,  T.  F.i.o.t.  Surgeon  to  Bt 
George's  Hospital 

Taylor,  Alfred  S.  F.i.i.  Professor  of 
Medical  Jurisprudence  and  Chemb- 
try  in  Guy's  Hospital 

Taylor,  John,  m.d.  Professor  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy  in  the  Andersonian 
University,  Glasgow 

Thomson,  John,  m.d.  Hamilton,  La* 
narkshire 

Thomson,  Robt.  Dundas,  k.d.  Profes* 
Bor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow 

Toone,  John,  H.a.c.s.  Salisbury 

Toynbee,  Joseph,  f.b.s.  f.b.o.s.  Lond. 

Tweedie,  A.  m.d.  f.r.*.  Physician  to 
the  Fever  and  to  the  Foundling  Hos- 
pital, London 

Ure,  And.  m.d.  F.i.i.  London 

Ure,  Alexander,  f.k.c.s.  London 

Watson,  James,  U.  m.o.  Tranent,  Had- 
dingtonshire 

Watson,  Thomas,  h.d.  f.i.c.f.  Con- 
sulting Physician  to  King's  College 
Hospital,  London 

Webster,  G.  h.d.  M.ii.o.i.  Edinburgh, 
Dulwicb,  Surrey 

Whitfeld,  H.  m.iuc.s.  Ashford,  Kent 

Whittle,  Edward  John,  Surgeon,  Lam- 
berhurst,  Sussex 

Wilkins,  Ignatius,  m.i.o.s.  Wade> 
bridge,  Cornwall 

Williams,  C.  J.  B.  m.d.  f.b.s.  Pro£  of 
Medicine  in  the  University  of  Lond. 

Wilson,  Erasmus,  F.s.i.  f.b.o.s.  &e. 
&.C.  London 

Winslow,  Forbes,  h.d.  m.b.o.s.  Editor 
of  the  "Journal  of  Psychological 
Medicine  and  Mental  Pathology," 
London 

Wood,  Andrew,  h.d.  f.i.o.s.  Edin. 

Wright,  Samuel,  m.d.  vuo.  Physician 
to  Queen's  College,  Birmingham 

Young,  J.  Forbes,  m.d.  Kennington, 
Surrey. 


